English
Similarly, the verb which should agree with a single plural subject may be attracted in number by a noun predicate in its immediate proximity;—e.g. TOTOTOt^rn: TO<d < 1 *14^3 these seven constituent parts are said (sing.) to form the entire kingdom.’ Pronouns. 195* *• Personal, a. Owing to its highly inflexional character Sanskrit uses the nominatives of personal pronouns far less frequently than modern European languages do (cp. 1910). b. The unaccented forms of and (109 a) being enclitic, can be used neither at the beginning of a sentence or metrical line (Pada), nor after vocatives, nor before the particles , ^T, TO. —e.g. my friend’ (notit); Miftf O God, protect us’ (’SUfll^, not *JI); ^TT ‘ his house or mine.’ c. TOT^‘ your Honour’ (f. the polite form of ' thou ’ (with which it often alternates even in the same sentence), takes the verb in the 3. person;—e.g. what does your Honour say?’ The plural (f. is construed in the same way; it frequently has a singular sense (193,3 a). Two compounds of are often used in the drama:— VII r 95 PRONOUNS 183 at ra-bhavan refers to someone present, either the person addressed or some third person=‘your Honour here’ or ‘his Honour here’; cTWrr^tatra-bhavan, ‘his Honour there,’ referring to some one off the stage, can only be used of a third person. Both take the verb in the 3. sing. a. Demonstrative, a . TRI and refer to what is near or present= this.’ The former is the more emphatic of the two. Both are often employed agreeing with a subject in the 1. or 3. pern. sing, in the s ense of^he re’;-e.g. TR* frTUfrJ ‘here a devotee stands ’; ‘here am I ’; ‘here comes your son.’ TO ‘this person’ is frequently used as an equivalent of * I.’ b. ^ and refer to what is absent or remote=‘that.’ is the more definitely demonstrative of the two, being, for instance, the regular correlative to an antecedent relative. It has the following special uses. It has often (lite Lat. ills) the sense of well-known,’ ‘celebrated’;-e.g. W ‘that well- known charming city/ It i, frequently also the equivalent of t e aforesaid ’e.g. ‘ I (being) such ’ (aa just described). In this sense it may often be translated simply by the definite article the ’ (cp. 192). When unaccompanied by a noun 9 supplies the place of a personal pronoun of the third pereon= e she it, they,' but with a certain amount of emphasis when used m the nominative and ^ are employed in the same way as personal pronouns of the third person). Finallv W when repeat ed means ‘^var ious,' 'several,- 'all sorts of'j-e g *Tf*r mfw ■ he read various treatise,.' ' 3. Possessive. These pronouns (116) are comparatively little used as the gemtive of the personal pronouns is generally em- ployed. In accordance with the sense of WTO /•* \ . derivatives bhavad-iya and HTW** as possess,ve pronouns of the second person in respectful address 184 USES OF THE CASES VII 196 THE CASES. Nominative. 196. The nominative is far less frequently used in Sanskrit as the subject of a sentence than in other Indo-European languages. Its place is very commonly supplied by the instrumental of the agent with a passive verb;—e.g.^lfa ‘a certain field-watcher was standing aside’ (lit. ‘by a certain field-watcher it was stood aside ’). a. The nominative is used predicatively with verbs meaning to be, become, seem, appear,’ as well as with the passive of verbs of calling, considering, sending, appointing, making, &c.;—e.g. *jf*l*1T J)SfcO Ifct* the dog was turned into a tiger by the sage.’ b. The nominative followed by may in certain circumstances take the place of the accusative (see 194, 1). I97. Besides its ordinary use of denoting the object of transitive verbs, the accusative is employed to express— 1. the goal with verbs of motion;—e.g. ‘ he went to Vidarbha.’ a. verbs of going, like *R^and ^JT, are very commonly joined with an abstract substantive where either the corresponding adjective with ‘to become,’ or merely an intransitive verb would be used in English;—e.g. ^1 he becomes famous’ (lit. ‘ goes to fame ’); <l^fd ‘ he dies ’ (lit. ‘ goes to death ’). a. duration of time and extension of space;—e.g. ‘he learns for a month’; <l^fd ‘be goes (the distance of) a Yojana’ (nine miles). 3. the object of desiderative adjectives in ^ (cp. 169) and of some compound adjectives beginning with prepositions; — e.g. VII i 9 8 ACCUSATIVE 185 Sift* * 1 desirous of crossing the ocean ’; devoted to Damayantl.* 4. the cognate object of intransitive verbs in the case of sub¬ stantives and the analogous adverbial sense in the case of adjectives; e.g. ^TR ‘may he rain (i.e. grant) all desires’; uftv ‘let us go quickly’ (originally, ‘go a quick gait ’). Double Accusative. 198. Two accusatives are governed by— x. verbs of ca lling, con sidering, knowing, making, appointing choosing; e.g. TOfcTH^‘1 know thee (to be) the chief person.* a. verb, of speaking (j, ^), asking (iTf), begging Trm), instructing fag-UT*;), fining" (^T^) winning (f%l), milking fcf) ;-e.g. ^ bird addressed a speech to Nala’; ‘ho should ask true evidence from the twice-born*; ‘ he asks Bali for the earth ’; TR:‘ what she commands me’; ‘ he should fine them a thousand (pa^as)’; f^T XT** having won the kingdom from Nala ’; ‘ they milked (i.e. extracted) gems from the earth.’ a. TOR ' tell,* ‘ make known,’ and ‘enjoin,’ never take the accusative of the person addressed, but the dative (or gen.). adverbs ofbnnging, conveying, leading, dispatching;-e.g. * he bring8 the goat t0 the village * ; , ^ ‘ having sent Sakuntala away to her husband’s house.’ 186 ACCUSATIVE VII 199 4. causative verbs;—e. g. \\*i ‘ he causes Rama to learn the Veda’; if stress is laid on the agent (the direct acc.), it may be put in the instrumental: <Tf ‘ he should cause her to be devoured by dogs.’ a. When the causative meaning has faded, the dat. or gen. of the person is used instead of the acc.; this is generally the case with show’ (‘cause to see’), and iqq ‘tell* ('cause to hear’), and always with *c^q ‘make known,’ ‘tell* (‘cause to know’). b. In the passive construction the direct acc. (the person or agent) becomes the nom., the indirect acc. (the object or thing) remains;—e. g. lqrt ‘ Rama is caused to learn the Veda ’; cTT ^ HI ‘ dogs are caused to devour her ’; Bali is asked for the earth.’ Instrumental. 199. The fundamental notion of the instrumental, which may be rendered by ‘ by ’ or ‘ with,* expresses the agent, the instru¬ ment (means), or concomitant by or with which an action is performed;—e. g. ‘ it w'as said by him ’=‘ he said ’; ^ •! cqimfc^d* ‘he was killed with a sword’; TTTTt ‘ there is no one happier (201,2a) in this world than he who has converse with a friend.’ 1. The following are modifications of the instrumental sense expressing— a. the reason : ‘by,*‘through,* ‘byreason of,* ‘because of,’ ‘on account of ’;—e. g. ‘ through your favour ’; ^TT- xro 3 m 5*541 ft ‘1 punish you for that fault’; IWI ‘by the thought of a tiger’=‘because he thought it was a tiger’ (cp. p. 172, 5); gWPWT under the delusion of (the existence of) pleasure.’ VII 199 INSTRUMENTAL 18? b. accordance : ‘ by,’ 4 in conformity with *;—e. g.U grfH 4 by nature’; mm ‘ by birth ’; * ‘ he goes by (acts in accordance with) my opinion/ C * the pri f 6 ! (< with ’’ ‘ b y means of ’=) ‘ for/ ‘ at the price of’ ;- e * S‘ (q[ 4 a book sold for a hundred rupees’; ‘a man should always save himself even at the cost of his wife or cf his wealth.’ d. time within which anything is done: (‘ by the lapse of’=0 ‘m’;--e.g.m^*rf^ ' grammar is learnt in twelve years.’ e# the way, vehicle or part of the body by which motion is effected; e. g. mi^T mSfa UTOT: mm: 4 in what direc¬ tion^. by what road ’) have the crows disappeared ? * m fc l +U b f, 6 ^ 6S ° n hor8eback ’ (Ht. * by means of a horse’); 4 he carried (uvaha) the dog on his shoulder.* f ‘ ia respect of ' S with words implying superiority, in¬ feriority or defectiveness ;-e. g. ipnff 4 inferior to these two (abl.) in valour*; gfot mifcfifr ‘0 fortuna te man, you excel your ancestors in that (devotion)’; mm: 4 blind of an eye.* % °*[ * * s w ^h words meaning need or use, m}:, *W*lt^(u8ed interrogatively or with a negative), or fm^ 4 what ?* (With or without W ‘ do ’) ;-e. g. 5 * • what is th „ ue of life to me* (gem); ^ W MI< l l i , a i es Vs feot have no need of servants ’; what is to be done with that cow ? ■ ft* ' what hav6 we (to do) with t his?’ Similar is the use of STCPX/done with’= away with' and HRRl. ‘enough of (cf. i8o): BR nprapfr away with ri sing *=‘pray do not rise.’ i88 INSTRUMENTAL VII 199 h. * with/ ‘ at': with verbs of rejoicing, laughing, being pleased, satisfied, astonished, ashamed, disgusted;—e.g. I<U^rrfa gwfrr ‘ a low person is satisfied even with very little’; he laughed at it.’ /. ‘of/‘by’: with verbs of boasting or swearing;—e. g. ♦UdJHT ltj ‘ I swear by Bharata and myself.’ /. the object (victim) with ‘sacrifice’;—e.g. T JT rr ^ qotrt ‘he sacrifices a bull to Rudra.’ Here we have the real inst. sense surviving from the time when meant ‘worship’ a god (acc.) with (inst.). a. The concomitant or sociative sense is generally supple¬ mented by the prepositional adverbs a °d ^TFi^'with,’ which are used (like ‘with’ in English) even when separation or antagonism is implied;—e.g. ^ fan *ra: 4 the father went with his 6on ’; ‘dis¬ agreement with a friend ’; ^ TR be engaged in a fight with him.’ This sense is also applied— a. to express the accompanying circumstances or the manner in which an action is performed;—e.g. ‘that pair lives in great affection’; *1^dT 4 with great pleasure.’ b.