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da, ‘give’: da-p-aya; T§TT stha, ‘stand’: stha-p-aya. b. The causative suffix is retained (as in the tenth class) throughout the conjugation excepting the (reduplicated) aorist (which is connected with the causative in sense only: cp. 149). Irregularities. 1. "WT jfla, ‘know,’ TOT gla, ‘languish,* i^TT rala, ‘fade,’ ^Tt fina, 4 wash,* optionally shorten the radical vowel before TO pay a: UTTO jfla-p-aya or jfla-p-aya, &c. a. A few roots ending in other vowels than ^ a take TO paya t^f ji, ‘ conquer ’: ^TTO ja-paya, ‘ cause to win ’; ^ i with adhi, ‘ read ’: TOTTTO adhy-apaya, 4 teach ’; ^ r, ‘ go ’: n frq 140 DERIVATIVE VERBS IV 169 ar-paya, ‘put’; ^ ruh, ‘grow’: ro-paya, as well as roh-dya, ‘raise.’ 3. ^dhu, ‘shake,’ makes dhu-n -aya, ‘shake’; prl, love ’: pri-n-aya, ‘ delight bhl, ‘ fear ’: bhi- s-aya, as well as the regular bhay-aya, ‘ frighten.’ 4 * labli, take,’ inserts a nasal: lambh-ava; while dams, bite, retains its nasal: dain->-aya (cp. 133A4). 5. ^*4 ban, kill, substitutes the denominative 6tem 'mrTiJ ghata-ya, ‘ make slaughter of.’ II. Desideratives. 169. Desiderative stems are formed by adding to the root, reduplicated in a peculiar way, the suffix sa, directly in about seventy cases, but with the connecting vowel ^ i (i.e. i-sa) in nearly thirty others. Thus ^ bhu, ‘ be,’ becomes bd-bhu-sa, desire to be,’ but ^V^jTv, ‘live,’ ji-jlv-isa, ‘desire to live.’ Desideratives are inflected like verbs of the first con¬ jugation (p. 92). The accent being on the reduplicative syllable, the root as a rule remains unchanged, but— 1. before sa. final ^ i and ^ u are lengthened, while r and become Ir or, after labials, ur;—e.g. ci, ‘gather’: ci-ci-sa; stu,‘praise’: tu-stu-sa; ^ tf,‘cross’: fFTrlY^ ti-tlr-sa; mr, ‘die’: mu-mur-aa. 2. before isa, final f^i, ^ u, f must take Guna; medial r takes it also, medial ^ u does so in one case, and medial ^ i not at all;—e.g. si, ‘ lie ’: s'i-say-isa; sf, * crush ’ : finite si-sar-isa; nrt, ‘dance’: n 1 n j subh, ‘beautify*: s'u-sobh-isa; vid, ‘ know ’: vi-vid-isa, as well as vi-vit-sa. IV 171 DESIDERATIVES I 4 I Special Boles of Reduplication. 170. 1. a, ^TT a, and ^ r are represented by ^ i in the reduplicative syllable (but ^ ur, standing for r after labials, reduplicates with <3 u)e. g. dah, ‘ burn ’: di-dhak-sa ( 55 ! 69 a ); stha, ‘ stand ’: f?T&TO ti-stha-sa; srj, ‘ create ’: si-srk-sa (63 a) ; £ bhr, ‘bear ’: bu-bhur-sa. a. The reduplication of roots containing ^ i and ^ u is normale. g. vis, ‘ enter ’: faftK vi-vik-sa (63 6); ^ budh, ‘ know *: bu-bhut-sa (55); ^ duh, ‘ milk *: du-dhuk-sa (55; 69 a); ^ ruh, ‘grow’: rd-ruk-sa. Thus all desideratives, except those from roots containing ^ u, 3 S u, reduplicate with ^ i. a. The two or three roots with initial vowel that take the desiderative reduplicate internally with ^ i: as', * eat,’ rm ife'-is'-iBa; Iks, ■ see ’: ic-iks-iaa. ^ap, obtain, forms its stem by contraction: t^ip -sa. Irregularities. 171. x. *|^gam, ‘go/ and f^han, 4 kill/ lengthen their radical vowel; w hile yj man,‘ think/lengthens the reduplicative vowel as well ji-g aip-sa(be side ji-gam-isa); ji-gham-sa (66 A 2) ; jffafTO mi-marp-sa(66 A 2), ‘reflect/ a. grah, ‘seize/ prach, ‘ask/ ^svap, ‘sleep/ take Samprasarana:-f^ ji-ghrk-sa (55; 69 a), ftraf^ pi . su-sup-sa. , 3 - ^Tda,‘ give/ *IT dha, ‘ place/ *TT mS, ‘ measure/ TO pad, go, THmbh, ‘grasp/ S^labh, ‘take/ ^ fek, ‘be"able/ contract the first two syllables of the stem in such a way as to retain only the reduplication and one consonant of the root: 1 ^ Sa ’^l dhf ' t ' 8a ii!^ f ' dh(5) ‘ 8a: 55), mi-t-sa, p:-t-sa, ri-p-sa, If-p-sa, fOT si-k-sa. 142 INTENSIVES IV 172 4. ci, ‘gather,* f%f ji, ‘conquer,’ ^hun, ‘ kill* (cp. 171,1), revert to their original guttural: ci-kT-sa (beside ci-cl-sa); jf-gl-sa; V 4 i^f jf-gham-sa. 5. ghas, ‘eat,’ changes its ^ s tor^t: ji-ghat-sa, ‘be hungry.’ III. Intensives (Frequentatives). 172. These verbs are meant to convey an intensification or frequent repetition of the action expressed by the simple root. Only monosyllabic verbs beginning with a consonant are liable to be turned into intensives. Hence neither verbs of the tenth class nor roots like ad can form this derivative. About sixty roots (less than half the number found in Vedic literature) take the intensive in Sanskrit, but forms of it rarely occur. The stem, which takes a peculiar kind of strong reduplication, has two forms. The one adds the personal eudiugs immediately to the reduplicated stem (accented on the first syllable in strong forms), being conjugated in the Parasmaipada only, like a verb of the third or reduplicated class (p. 96);—e. g. bo-bho-ti from bhu, ‘be.* The other adds accented ya, in the same way as the passive (154), to the reduplicated stem, being conjugated in the Atmanepada only, like the passive (p.130);—e.g. bo-bhu-ya-te from Jj^bhu. a. The first intensive may optionally insert before termina¬ tions beginning with consonants in the strong forms. Stems ending in consonants do not take Guna either before this ^ I or before terminations beginning with vowels; — e.g. ‘know’; ve-ved-mi or ve-vid-I-roi, ve-vidmah, imper. ve-vid-ani; but ^ hu, ‘ call ’: frfa j6-ho-mi or j6-hav-I-mi, j6-hav-ani. IV 174 IRREGULARITIES 143 Special Rules of Reduplication. 173 * Th© reduplicative syllable takes Guna and lengthens ^ a;—e. g. fa^nij, ‘ cleanse ’: n6-nek-ti; m, ‘ lead *: ne-ni-yi-te; ^\^budh,‘ know *: bo-budh-I-ti; § Plu, ‘ float ’: po-plu-ya-te; 7 !^ tap, ‘ be hot ’: T H ri qfr ta-tap-ya-te. * I a. Roots ending in ^^am repeat the nasal instead of lengthening the vowel;—e.g. kram, ‘stride* : ”*45,*Tlfd can-kram-i-ti, can-kram-yi-te. b. Roots containing j* insert t I between the reduplication and the roote. g. mr, ‘ die *: mar-I-nmr-ti; drrf, ‘see’: efO^^dar-i-drs-ya-te; •p^nrt,‘dance’: uar-i-nrt-ya-te. Irregularities. * 74 - 8L ‘ awake,’ reduplicating with ^ a (as from gar), forms the stem ^1^ ja-gr, which has almost assumed the character of a root (134 A 4) and is used as the only present stem of the verb: 3. sg. 5 TRf?f ja-gar-ti. 3. pi. WRrfTT ja-gr-ati. a. ^ dah, ‘burn,’ and jabh, ‘snap at,’ reduplicate with a nasal, while d ^ car, * move,’ changes its radical vowel as well: dan-dah-I-ti and dan-dah-ya-te; jan-jabh-yd-te; can-cfir-yi-te. b. ^ pad, ‘ go, ’ besides reduplicating with a nasal, inserts after it: pa-n-i-pad-ya-te; while dru, ‘run,’ redu¬ plicates as if (173 b) it contained ^ r (only that the inserted vowel is ^ i, which, however, is long by position): i fit dAr-i-drS-ti (cp. 134 A 4). ^ J 44 DENOMINATIVES V 175 IV. Denominatives. 175 . A large number of verbs, inflected like those of the a-conjugation (p. 92), are derived, with the suffix from nouns, to which they express some such relation as ‘be or act like,’ ‘ treat as,’ ‘ make,’ ‘ desire.’ Before the suffix, final ^ i and ^ u are lengthened; ^ a often is also, but sometimes becomes ( C P- I 54 > i)- Examples are:—namas-y£, ‘ pay homage (namas) to svaml-ya, ' regard as a master ’ (svami); gopa-y£, ‘be like a herdsman (go-pa) to,’ ‘protect’; 441 raja-ya, play the king’ (raja); 5^+uq druma-ya, ‘rank as a tree ’ (druma); putrl-ya, ‘ desire a son ’ (putra). a. Denominatives which have the causative accent (fi-ya) are reckoned verbs of the tenth class by the Hindu grammarians. Such are mantr^-ya, ‘take counsel’ (mantra), kutd-ya, ‘ celebrate ’ (kirtf, ‘ fame ’); varni-ya, ‘ depict,’ ‘ describe ’ (v^rna, ‘ colour ’); cftvj'fcj kathfi-ya, ‘ tell how,’ ‘ relate ’ (ka-thdm, ‘how? ’). CHAPTER V INDECLINABLE WORDS Prepositions. 170. Owing to the cases having a more independent meaning than in other Aryan languages, the number of prepositions is quite small, and their use is very limited in Sanskrit. They are nearly all postpositions 1 , and they do not ‘govern,* but only define the general sense of, the case to which they are added. 1 In Homeric Greek the prepositions preserve their original position as well as accent in anastrophe: dno (Skt. dp), tri (dpi), nipa (p£ra), ntpi (pAri). PREPOSITIONS V , 77 Of the dozen Vedic postpositions (also employed as verbal pre¬ fixes) Sanskrit preserves only three in common use:— I# 4 nu, after,* and Jlfrt pr 3 ti (Qk. rrpori), * towards,’ ‘ about,’ after the accusative. 2. W a, ‘ from ’ or ‘ up to,’ before the ablative. a. The following are also occasionally met with, nearly always following their caseirfH abhf, ‘ against ’ (acc.); purds, ‘ before ’ (£“•) J *dhi, ‘ over ’ (loc.), antdr (Lat. inter, Eng. under), within,’ between ’ (loc., rarely gen.). Prepositional Adverbs. 177. The loss or obsolescence of the Vedic prepositions in the true sense is compensated in Sanskrit by the increasing use of ungenuine prepositions, that is to say, those which cannot be attached to verbs and the origin of which from cases is still for the most part clear. They are employed with all the oblique cases except the locative and the dative; with the latter case no prepositional word is ever connected in Sanskrit. These adverbs are given in the following list, grouped under the cases which they accompany :— a. Acc. X ?RPCT antara and rfntarena, ‘ between,’ jvithout ’ ; tho latter also ' regarding *; nikasa and sa mdya, * ne ar *; vftn: abh'1-tafc. Hfpari-tab, sarvd-tab, HWc V. sama nta-tab, ‘ around ’; ubhayd-tab, ‘on both sides of’; ^Tpdrena,‘beyond’; ^TR^vavat, ‘ during,’ up to,’ till’ (also abl.). *. Instr. saha, samara, VRl^sakdm, sar- dham, (together) with’; t^RTvfna,*without,’‘except’(also acc rarely abl.). ’ c. AM.