English
1 In this vowel gradation, as Comparative Philology shows, the Guna vowel represents the normal stage, from which the simple vowel was reduced by loss of accent, while Vrddhi is a lengthened variety of Guna. The reduction of the syllables ya, va, ra (which are parallel with the Guna stage) to the corresponding vowels i, r is termed Samprasarana (‘distraction’). 12 EXTERNAL VOWEL SANDHI II 20 20. A simple liquid vowel followed by any other vowel or by a diphthong is changed into its semivowel;—e.g. dadhi atra=^2T^ dadhy atra ; cfirj \JcT kartr uta kartr uta; ^ niadhu iva = madhv iva ; nadi artham nadyartham. 21 . The Guna vowels e and o— a. remain unchanged before ^ a, which is elided: ^ nftj te api = Sfaft te ’pi; so api = 60 ’pi. b. become ^ a (through ay and K^av, which drop the semivowel) before every other vowel (or diphthong): ^ sakhe iha=*H^ snklm ilia; HHt prabho elii= JW 1prablia chi. 22. The Vrddhi vowels ai and au respectively become ^RT a (through iiy) and ^TT^Tiv (the semivowel not being dropped in this case) before every vowel (or diphthong): sriyai arthahzzf^^T sriya artliah; rft *f?T tau iti= rHfafd tiiv iti. a. The (secondary) hiatus occasioned by the droppiug of ^J x y and W v v in the above throe cases (21 b aud 22) remains. Irregular Vowel Sandhi. 23 . Vrddhi i ustead of Guna results from the contraction of— a. a preposition ending in ^1 a or ^JT a with a verb beginning with r;—e.g. upa r>ati=^PTplf?T uparsati; a rccbati = ”^| ^fd urcchati. b. the proposition V pra with the perfect participle passive xji2 udlia (from vah, ‘carry’): jffe praudha, ‘h'fted up.’ c. the augment a with au initial vowel;—e.g. ^1 a uuat = auuat, ‘he wetted’ (fromud, wet ). EXTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI 13 II 27 Absence of Vowel Sandhi. 24. Interjections! particles consisting of or ending in vowels, such as ^ a, ^ i, ^ u,% he, aho, are not liable to Sandhi: ^ i indra, ‘ 0 Indra’; a evam, ‘ is it so indeed?’ aho apehi,. ‘ Oh, go away.’ 25. The vowels u, T[ e. when dual terminations, nominal or verbal, remain unchanged before vowels (^1 a not being elided after this dual e); they are called Tragi-hya (‘ separate ’). Tlie final of ami, a nom. plural (of the pronoun Wi- asau, 112), is treated in the same way. E.g. kavl imau, ‘ these two poets ’; sadhu imau, ‘these two merchants’; f%tt ^ vidye ime, ‘ these two sciences’; ’^f^H.yacete artham, ‘they two ask for money’; Wt ami asvab, ‘ those horses.’ 26. In the Epics, the law-books, and other works not strictly conforming to the classical standard, vowel Sandhi is seldom applied between the first and second line (Pada) of a hemistich. Combination of Final and Initial Consonants. 27. The rules of Sandhi are only applicable after the final con¬ sonant of a word has been reduced to one of the eight allowable (actually occurring) consonants at the end of a word in pausa, viz.: It, c^t, Up ) \ and J (Visarga). ft, i^n, ) The thirty-four consonants given in the table (6) are reduced to these eight, as follows: A final must be hard and unaspirated, the palatals (including \ 4 ) and ^ h are replaced by k or ^ \ (^fi by fc), by ^t, ^s and ^r by Visarga, while* 1 , and do r 4 EXTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI II 28 not occur. Thus the second, third, and fourth columns, as well as the second line (the palatals), disappear entirely, leaving only four tenues in the first, three nasals in the fifth, and Visarga alone in the sixth and seventh. 28. No word may end in more than one consonant, except when ^ r precedes a final ^k, 2 t,r(t. P- which is radical (or substituted for a radical) and uot a suffix* In the case of all other combinations the final letter or letters nnlst be dropped till only one, in the form allowable as a final, remains. Thus bhavant-s becomes Ithacan. ‘ being ’; abibhar-t= abibhah, ' I10 carried ’ (<^ t is a suffix ; r must become Visarga); but \Jiafi urk, ‘strength’ (^ k substituted for radical J); wi arnart, ‘ lie wiped,’ from n. mrj t substituted for radical 3 TJ). Classification of Consonants. 29 . Place or organ of articulation. 1. The throat, the palate, the roof of the month, the teeth, the lips, and the nose arc called the places or organs ot articulation. 2. By contact between the tongue and the four places—throat, palate, roof, teeth—the guttural, palatal, cerebral, and dental consonants are formed. Labial consonants are formed by contact between the lips. 3. I11 forming the nasals of the five classes, the breath partially passes through the nose while the tongue or the lips are in the position for articulating the corresponding tenuis. The real Anus vara is formed in the nose only, while the tonguo is in the position for forming the particular vowel which the Anus vara accompanies. II 30 EXTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI *5 4 * The semivowels y, ^ r, ^ 1, ^ V are palatal, cerebral, deutal, and labial respectively. They are described by the old Indian grammarians as produced by partial or imperfect contact of the tongue with the organ of articulation, 1 often interchanges with or is derived from ^ r. 5* The three sibilants are hard spirants produced by partial contact of the tongue with the. palate, roof, and teeth respectively. Sanskrit has not preserved any of the corresponding soft sibilants (English z, French j). 6. ^ b and I h are respectively soft and hard spirants produced without any contact, and articulated in the position of the vowel which precedes or follows. g h, corresponding to the second half of the soft aspirates g-h, j-h, d-h, b-h, from which it is in fact derived, occurs only before soft letters. Visarga. corresponding to the second half of the hard aspirates (k-h, &c.), occurs only after vowels and before certain hard consonants. In India Visarga is usually articulated as a hard h, followed by a very short echo of the preceding vowel ;—e.g.qi: kah=kah ft ,^Sfa: kavifeskavih*; rtui.i=rtuh u . 0 3°* Quality of consonants. Consonants are— i. either hard (surd, voiceless): columns i. 2, 7 in the table, p- 4 ; or soft (sonant, voiced): all the rest (columns 3, 4, 5, 6) and Annsvara (besides all the vowels and diphthongs). a. either aspirated : columns 2, 4, 7, besides ^ h (in 6); or unaspirated ; all tho rest. Hence the change of ^ c to is a change of place (palatal to guttural), and that of ^ c to ^ j is a change of quality (hard to soft); while the change of ^ c to i^g (hard palatal to soft i6 EXTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI H 31 guttural), or of <^t to 3 Tj (hard dental to soft palatal) is one of both place and quality. 31. It is essential to remember that consonant Sandhi cannot be applied till finals have been reduced to one of the eight allow¬ able letters (27). The latter are then modified without reference to their etymological value (except partially in the case of Visarga). Only six of these finals occur at all frequently, viz. k, ^p, ^ m, and Visarga. The changes which final consonants undergo are most conveniently treated with reference to (I) their quality, (II) their place or organ. I, Changes of Quality. 32. Final consonants must be soft before soft initials, and hard before hard initials. a. This rule affects only the five final hard consonants (^ k, ^ t, < 1 1, ^ p, and : h), the nasals (6; 36) not being liable to changes of quality (but two of them,^n^m, are liable to changes of place, like the two hard sounds and Visarga: 37). Hence final k, ^ t, t, ^ p before sonants become *I v g, ^ d, c£ d, ^ b respectively o.g. samyag uktam, ‘ well said ’ ; dig-gajah, ‘ world-elephant.’ — parivrad avam, ‘ he (is) a mendicant ’; = 'jfX*1'Jj parivrad gacchati, ‘ the mendicant goes.’ sarid atra, ‘the river here’; mahad-dhanul.i, ‘ a large bow.*—^ ^ = <*1^^ kakub atra, a region here ’; 3 ft = ab-jafi, ‘ bom in water.’ 33. ^ k, Z t, <T.t, ^ p, when followed by initial ^nor?(ra, may, and in practice almost invariably do, become the correspond¬ ing nasals ^ u, H(n, ^n, J^m e.g. f^j WPI^f^TPT* or EXTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI *7 II 36 dig-nagal.i or dih-nagab, ‘ world-elephant ’ ; = or jagad-natbab or jagan-nathalj, ' lord of the world ’; = TOTTO' san-masah, ‘ period of six months ’ ; UT^ pran-mukhab, ‘ facing the east.’ 34. Final c^t before JsTl becomes < 5 T 1 (through ^ d) ;—e.g. 43 db| 4 ( = ?ff!l Septal labdham, * that is taken.* 35 - Since the nasals have no corresponding hard letters, they remain unchanged in quality before hard letters; but in several cases a sibilant (after n) or cognate hard letter (after n or ^ n) is inserted between the two. An original palatal ^ fl or cerebral never occurs as a final letter (27). The guttural >¥ h, which is rare as a final, remains unchanged in that position, but ^ k may be inserted after it before the three sibilants;—e. g. prafi sete or fjTl prafik sete, ‘ he lies eastward.’ Final is liable to change before all consonants (42). Final dental ^n remains unchanged before most letters, but is modified before all palatals and cerebrals (except ^s), before the hard dentals <^t and ^tb, and before the semivowel 43 M. Its treat¬ ment requires a somewhat detailed statement. 3 ^. A. The dental nasal ^n remains unchanged— I* before vowels (cp. 52);—e.g. tan uvaca,‘ke spoke to them.’ 2. before all gutturals, k, ^kh, J^g, ^gh, as well as ^ h e -6- 1*1. buddhiman ko ’pi, ‘ a certain wise man ’; <il\ tan hatva, ‘ having slain them.* 3. before all the labials, ^ p, t| ph, ^b, #f^bh, ^ m;—e.g. Vnt*b tTHTPH etan pasan, ‘ these bonds * ; bandhavan mama, ‘ my relatives.* 4. before the soft dentals ^ d, tj^dh, e.g. c 1 8 EXTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI II 36 matsyaudhatta, ‘put the fish ’; lajaputran nayati, ‘he leads the princes.’ 5. before the semivowels ^v, ^ r, ^ v;—e.g.