English
10-32 CHAPTER III: DECLENSION Nouns: Consonant stems —unchangeable—changeable: with Two Stems; with Three Stems—Vowel stems—Degrees of Comparison— Numerals: Cardinals—Ordinals—Numeral Adverbs—Pronouns: Per¬ sonal—Demonstrative—Interrogative—Relative—Reflexive—Posses¬ sive—Compound—Quantitative—Indefinite—Pronominal Adjectives 32-82 CHAPTER IV: CONJUGATION Introductory—The Present System—First Conjugation—Second conjugation —The Augment-Reduplication —Terminations—Para¬ digms-Irregularities—The Perfect —The Aorist: First Aorist — Seamd Aorist—Benedictive—Future—Conditional—Passive— Par- Uciples—Gerund—Infinitive—Derivative Verbs: Causative-Desi- aerative—Intensive—Denominative. 82-144 CHAPTER V ; INDECLINABLE WORDS P^repositiona — prepositional Adverbs —Prepositional Substan- InterjoctioM 9lt ^ na ^ Genind8—C0D ^ UnCt ^ Ve and Adverb,al Particles- **••■•••••• 144-150 CHAPTER VI: NOMINAL STEM FORMATION AND COMPOUNDS n ~ Secon ? ar y Suffixes-Gender-Verbal Com- Nominal Compounds: Co-ordinatives - Determinatives: ' Dependent and Descriptive—Possessives. lfi ^ 178 CHAPTER VII: SYNTAX oordl t pl^ ry_0 ^ er 0f Word s-The Article-Number-Con- ahctni “ Uso of the Cases — Locative and Genitive MS , ^S i „?ai M_In4 * , ! tiTe r U86of th ! T — Us ' ot th Appendix I: LIST OF VERBS ^231 Appendix U: METRE IN CLASSICAL SANSKRIT ! * 232-236 PE0ULIARITIES 0F VEDIC GRAMMAR 236-244 GENERAL INDEX . ' .. . .. THE DEVANAGARI LETTERS Vowels. Consonants. I it!*]. Med!*]. Equivalent. ' 3?1 sn 3TT *5 . T a f i 1 i O U c\ u *T . r (or ri) — £ f(orn) ^ 02 1 (or li) £ -^ Equivalent. k k-h g g-h ^ c ^ c-h * j Jorf ^ n or j-h d-h U " e n • •rj' *=N ai w t t-h ^rr t o d ■SN -^s d-h T au * n 9 * § ^ 3 00 Equivalent. P ' p-h b b-h m i * y £ i s (or 5)’ J h (Visarga) • m or m (Anusvara) Labials Semivowels Spirants CHAPTER I THE ALPHABET I. Sanskrit (from sam-skrta, 'elaborated ’) is that, later phase of the literary language of ancient India which is described in the grammar of Panini. In phonology it is practically identical with the earlier Vedic language. In accidence it has become different from the dialect of the Vedas by a process, not of growth, but of decay; a large number of older forms, including the whole sub¬ junctive mood and all the many infinitives save one, having entirely disappeared. The chief modifications are in the vocabulary, which, while it has lost much of its old material,has been greatly extended by the accession of new words and new meanings. The difference, on the whole, between the Vedic and the Sanskrit language may be taken to be much about the same as that between Homeric and Attic Greek. a. From the Vedic language are descended the popular dialects called Prakrit ('derived from the fundament,’ i. e. from Sanskrit, thence 1 vulgar ’). The oldest extant forms of these are preserved in King Aioka’s rock inscriptions of the third century b.c., one of them, under the name of Pali, becoming the sacred literary language of the Southern Buddhists. From the ancient Prakrits preserved in inscriptions, in entire literary works, and in parts’ of Sanskrit plays, are descended most of the dialects of modem India, Panjabi, SindhT, Gujarati, Marathi, Hindi (which, with an B o THE ALPHABET admixture of Arabic and Persian, is called Urdu or Hindustani), Biharl, and Bengali. The Dravidian dialects of Southern India, Telugu, Tamil, Cauarese, Malayalam, though non-Aryan, are full of Sanskrit words, and their literatures are dominated by Sanskrit models. 3- A form of Semitic writing was introduced into the north¬ west of India by way of Mesopotamia, probably about 700 B.c. The earliest Indian adaptation of this script, known from coins and inscriptions of the third century b.c., is called Brahml or writing of Brahma.’ Though written from left to right it bears clear traces of having once been written from right to left. From the Brahml are descended all the later Indian scripts. The most important of these is the Nagarl (‘ urban writing,* or perhaps writing of the N&gara Brahmins ’ of Gujarat) or Deva-nagarl ( city writing of the gods,’ a term of late but obscure origin), which assumed its characteristic shape about the middle of the eighth century a.d. Sanskrit is most commonly written in Deva- nugarl in Northern India, but other modern Indian characters, such as Bengali or Oriya, are also employed in their respective provinces; while in the non-Aryan south the Dravidiau scripts are regularly used. 4* The Dovanagarl alphabet consists of forty-eight letters, thirteen vowels and thirty-five consonants (including the pure nasal called Anusvara, and the spirant called Visarga). These represent every sound of the Sanskrit language. The arrange¬ ment of the alphabet in the table facing p. 1 is that adopted by the ancient Indian grammarians, and being thoroughly scientific, has been followed by European scholars as the lexicographical order in their Sanskrit dictionaries 1 . 1 Ab Anusvara and Visarga cause beginners much difficulty in finding words in a glossary, the following note on their alphabetical order will THE ALPHABET 3 5 . The vowels are written differently according as they are initial or follow a consonant. They are— (o) Simple vowels: *(-)’. x(r)r-, b(Ju, ^(j r . *(Ji. ^T(T)a, *(*>) I, W(Ju. ^( s )r. ( 6 ) Diphthongs: VC) TtO ^CO “ 3 ' ^t(^) au 5 . probably be useful. The unchangeable Anusviira (before a semivowel, sibilant, or ^ h: cp. ^2 B 1 ) has precedence of every other consonant: hence ^1^^ samvara, samsaya precede sa-ka. The changeable Anusvara ( 10 ; 42 B 2 ) occupies the place of the nasal into which it might be changed. Thus sani-ga would be found beside W sanga. Similarly the - unchangeable Visarga (before a hard guttural or labial) has precedence of every other consonant. Thus antahkarana and antahpura follow ^SfnT anta and precede ^ 'tt ^ anta-ka. But the changeable Visarga (before ft sibilant) occupies the place of the sibilant into which it might be changed. Thus antahsthn would appear where antasstlia might be written. 1 There is no sign for medial (or final) ft, as this vowel is considered to be inherent in every consonant;—e.g. **=ka. a Medial or final I is written before the consonant after which it is pronounced;—e.g. fsfi ki. Originally both 1 and i were written as curves to the left and the right respectively above the consonant; but for the sake of clear distinction were later prolonged with a vertical downward stroke, the one on the left, the other on the right. s Though based, in nearly all cases, on i\i and Su respectively, e and o are at present, and have been since at least 300 b.c., pronounced like the simple long vowels e and 0 in inoBt European languages. 1 Though etymologically representating ai and au, ai and au are at present, and have been since at least 300 B.c., pronounced as ii and iiu. 6 The medial forms of the vowels are in combination with consonants;— e g. ^ k, written as follows: eft ka, ka, f% ki, ki, ku, 4 THE ALPHABET I 6 6 . The following table contains a complete classification (known to Panini) of all the sounds of the Devanagari alphabet according to the organs of speech employed in their articulation. Soft Soft • media?* aspirate*. g ^ g-h ^ (1 Sd-h • • ^d *td-h ^ b Hh-h _ ^ ktt, k F. f kf, * kl,% ke, % kai, eft ko, *ft kau. In com¬ bination with ^ r, n and n are written at the side instead of below: <5 ru, ^ rn. 1 The palatals, being largely derived from original gutturals under the influence of palatal vowels, were transliterated by Max Muller with italicized gutturals. 2 This term is a translation of the old native Sanskrit word murdhanya, ‘produced in the head’ (mfinlhau), i.e. on the roof or highest point of the mouth, which is nearest the upper part of the head. This class of sounds has also often been called linguals (since Bopp). They are as a rule derived from original dentals under the influence of a neighbouring cerebral s or r sound. 3 ^ h is not a semivowel, but the soft breathing corresponding to the guttural vowel a, which, unlike the other simple vowels, has no semivowel of its own. It is identical with the second half of the soft aspirates g-h, &c. 1 l h (Visarga) the hard breathing, corresponding to the second half of the hard aspirates k-h, &c., is regularly used at the end of a word in pausd for s or r,and before hard gutturals and labials. In the latter case modifications of it called JihvamQliya (‘formed at the root of the tongue’), a guttural spirant ( = Germ. ch), and Upadhmaniya (‘on- breathing’), the bilabial spirant f, were formerly employed, but have become obsolete. They were both written X. s It is important to note that in the above table only the letters in (Softl j 'Softi Ilgrd , ■•*)< ! ' fml : >plraiit C1 '?“■} vowels. Short, Long. Diphthongs. ^ ii fh 3 .* 1/ ^aUTa) TJe $ ai ^ fi ^ y ^ T ' t I Vv X r 1 * WrUf ‘ u *T 1 S s j m ^ v I h 6 I ^ u ^ u I IO THE ALPHABET 5 7. Auusvara (‘ after-sound ’), the unmodified nasal following a vowel and differing from the nasals given in columns, is written with a dot above the letter which it follows;—e.g. kani. Before it is sometimes written e.g. # kam. Its proper place was originally before the sibilants and ^ h, whence its use extended. From Auusvara is sometimes distinguished Anunasika (‘ accom¬ panied by a nasal ’), the nasalized vowel. 8. In writing the Devauagarl alphabet, the distinctive portiou of each letter is written first, then the perpendicular, and lastly the horizontal line 1 ;—e.g. r, r\. Bf ta.