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1. 41. The other synonyms of life are dhdri, nityaga and anubandha. * Ibid Ts tars : sativam Gima sariram ca trayam etat tri-dandavat lokas tisthatt samyogat tatra sarvam pratisthitam. Ibid.1.1.45. * idam eva cdtmanas cetanatvam, yad indriya-samyoge sati jnana-salitvam, na nikrstasyatmanas cetanatvam. Cakrapani on Caraka, I. 1. 47. 5 mirvikarah paras tu atma satva-bhiita-gunendriyath. Caraka, I. 1. 55. tena sattva-sariratma-melaka-ripo ya atma-sabdena ucyate tam vydvartayati. Cakra- pani on the above. * nityatvam cdtmanah pirvaparavasthanubhitartha-pratisandhanat. Cakra- pani on Caraka, I. 1. 55. xi] Psychological Views and Ontological Categories 369 that affect us should not be attributed to the self, but to manas (drsyamdana-ragadi-vikaras tu manast). The special feature of this view of self is that it is permanent and unchangeable; this self seems to hold within it all the indi- vidual egos which operate in association with their respective senses, manas and body. It becomes endowed with consciousness only when it is in association with the senses. Pleasure, pain and the movements involved in thought-processés are attributed to manas, though the manas is also considered to derive its activity from the self. The states of consciousness that are produced are all united in the self. The self, thus diverted in its subtler aspect from the senses and manas, is eternal and unchangeable, whereas in its aspect as associated with mamas and the senses it is in the sphere of change and consciousness. This view is therefore different from those of the orthodox schools of Indian philosophy. It is well to note in this connection that the Caraka-samhita begins with an enumeration of the Vaisesika categories, and, though it often differs from the Vaisesika view, it seems to take its start from the Vaisesika. It enumerates the five elements, manas, time, space and self as substances (dravya); it enumerates the gunas, such as the sensible qualities, the mechanical or physical qualities given in the list beginning with heaviness (gurv ddayah), intelli- gence (buddhi), and those beginning with remoteness (para) and ending with effort (prayatna). But what is this gurv di list? There is no such list in the Vaisesika-siitras. Cakrapani, however, refers to an enumeration given in a later chapter (1.25.35) by Caraka, where however these gunas are not enumerated as belonging to all sub- stances, but only to the food and drink that we take?. But the list referred to as paradi (beginning with pardadt) prayatnanta (ending in prayatna) is not to be found anywhere in the Caraka-samhita. This may be areference to the Vaisesika-siitra, 1.1. 6". But, if this is so, it leaves out a number of other gunas enumerated in the Vazsestka- siitra which were counted there in the paradi list?. Caraka himself gives a list of gunas beginning with para which includes some of those gunas included in the Vaisesika-siitra already 1 Gharatvam aharasyaikavidham arthabhedat sa punah...vimsati-guno guru- laghu-sitosna-snigdha-ritksa-manda-tiksna-sthira-sara-mydu - kathina - visada -pic- chila-slaksna-khara-sitksma-sthiila-sandra-dravanugamat.Caraka-samhitd, 1.5.35. 2 paratvaparatve buddhayah sukha-duhkhe iccha-dvesau prayatnas ca gunah. Vaisesika-sittra, 1. 1. 6. 3 riipa-rasa-gandha-sparsah samkhyd-parimanani prthaktvam samyoga- vibhagau paratvaparatve. Ibid. DiI 24 370 Speculations in the Medical Schools [cH. referred to and some more. The gunas enumerated are para, apara, yukti, samkhya, samyoga, vibhaga, prthaktva, parimana, samskara, and abhyasa'. Para means “‘superiority” or “importance” (pra- dhana), apara means “‘inferiority” or “unimportance” (apra- dhana). This importance or unimportance is with reference to country, time, age, measure, the vasa resulting from digestion (paka), potency (virya) and taste (rasa). Thus, a dry country is called para and a marshy one apara; the rains (visarga) of early and late autumn (Sarat and hemanta) are called para, whereas the season of drought (winter, spring and summer) is called apara; with reference to paka, virya and rasa, para and apara mean “suitability ’ and ‘‘unsuitability’—that which is suitable to one is para and that which is unsuitable to him is apara. Yukti means proper selection of medicines with reference to certain diseases (dosidy-apeksaya bhesajasya samicina-kalpana); samkhya means “number”; samyoga, the mixing up or compounding of two or more substances; vibhaga, separation; prthaktva, difference. The mountains Himalaya and Meru are prthak, because they are situated in different places and cannot unite; again, even though a pig and a buffalo may meet together, they always remain different from each other; and again, in the same class, say in a collection of peas, each pea is different in identity from the other; in the last case difference in number constitutes a difference in identity ; thus, wherever there is a numerical difference (anekata), there is difference in identity. Prthaktva thus stands for three kinds of difference, spatial difference, difference of characters and difference of identity due to numerical distinction. Parimana means measurement by weight, samska@ra means the production of new qualities and abhyasa means habit due to constant practice (satata-kriya). It is evident from the above that, though the terms used are the same as those used by Kanada in the Varsestka-siitra, yet they are mostly used in different senses in accordance, probably, with medical tradition. But this list does not end with prayatna; it seems therefore that paradi and prayatnanta stand for two dif- ferent lists and should not be combined together. We have above the paradi list. The prayatndnta is a different list of gunas. It includes, as Cakrapani says, iccha@ (desire), dvesa (hatred), sukha ‘ Paraparatve yuktis ca samkhya samyoga eva ca, vibhdgas ca prthaktvam ca parimanam athdapi ca, samskarabhydsa ity ete gunah jneyah paradayah. Caraka- samhita, 1. 26. 27-29. xt] Psychological Views and Ontological Categories 371 (pleasure), duhkha (pain) and prayatna (effort). Prayatna means that particular quality by the rise of which in the soul the manas is moved to activity. Karma (movement) is described as prayatnadi-cestitam, i.e. a movement of the nature of conscious effort; the word addi in prayatnadi is explained by Cakrapani as meaning “of the nature of.” Samavaya means the relation of inseparable inherence, as in the case of qualities and substances. Cakrapani, in explaining the nature of samavaya, says that it is eternal, so that, even when in a particular case it may disappear, it continues to exist in other cases. It is never destroyed or created anew, but only its appearance is or is not manifested in particular cases?. In the case of samanya and visesa, again, Caraka seems to add a new sense to the words. In the Vaisesika systems the word sdémanya means a class concept; but here it means the concrete things which have similar constituents or characteristics; and visesa, which means in Vaisesika ultimate specific properties differentiating one atom from another, means in Caraka concrete things which have dissimilar and opposite constituents or characteristics. Sa@mdanya and visesa thus have a significance quite different from what they have in the Vaisesika-siitras. The principle of samanya and visesa is the main support of Ayur-veda; for it is the principle which underlies the application of medicines and the course of diets. Substances having similar constituents or characteristics will increase each other, and those having dissimilar constituents or characteristics will decrease each other. Thus a substance having the character- istics of vata will increase vata and decrease slesman, which is dissimilar to it, and soon. S@mdnya is thus defined as tulyarthata, i.e. performing similar purposes. Instead of having only a con- ceptual value, samanya and vwisesa are here seen to discharge a pragmatic work of supreme value for Ayur-veda. As regards the theory of substances (dravya) also, though Caraka borrowed the enumeration of categories, Cakrapani says that the simpler bhiitas formed parts of the complex ones (bhitantaranupravesa), and in support of this idea he quotes a sa#tra from the Nydaya- siitra, which, however, there occurs as an opponent’s view, since the theory of bhitanupravesa was not believed in by the Nyaya- 1 Gdi-sabdah prakaravaci. Cakrapani’s commentary on Caraka-samhita, 1. 1.48. 2 Ibid. 1. 1. 49. 24-2 372 Speculations in the Medical Schools [cH. Vaigesika school; with that school none of the elements entered into any other, and their qualities were fixed in themselves. However, in spite of these modifications, the relation of Nyaya- Vaisesika with Caraka seems to be close. But the detailed descrip- tion of the school of Samkhya, in Iv. 1,as has already been mentioned and explained in the first volume of the present work, in the chapter on Samkhya, does not seem to have much bearing on the needs of Ayur-veda; and so the whole chapter does not appear to fit in with the rest of the work, and it is not referred to in other parts of the book. It is not improbable that this chapter was somehow added to the book from some other treatise. Susruta does not, like Caraka, enumerate the categories of the Vaisesika, and his account of Samkhya is very faithful to the traditional account given in Iévarakrsna’s Karika and in the Samkhya-siitra. Having described the Samkhya theory, Susruta says that according to medical science the causes of things are sixfold, viz. (1) nature of things (svabhava), (2) God (Isvara), (3) time (kala), (4) accidental happenings (yadrccha), (5) destiny (niyati) and (6) evolution (parinama)!.