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produce doubts (samsaya), and the Gita lecture of Krsna is sup- posed to dispel the delusion of Arjuna, produced by ignorance}. This shows that, though the word ajfana is used in a variety of contexts, either as ordinary ignorance or ignorance of true and absolute philosophic knowledge, it is never referred to as being the source of attachment or desires. This need not be interpreted to mean that the Gita was opposed to the view that attachments and desires were produced from ignorance; but it seems at least to imply that the Gita was not interested to trace the origin of attach- ments and desires and was satisfied to take their existence for granted and urged the necessity of their extirpation for peace and equanimity of mind. Buddhist Hinayana ethics and practical discipline are constituted of moral discipline (sila), concentration (samadhi) and wisdom (pafia). The sila consisted in the per- formance of good conduct (caritia) and desisting (varitta) from certain other kinds of prohibited action. Sila means those par- ticular volitions and mental states, etc. by which a man who desists from committing sinful actions maintains himself on the right path. Sila thus means (1) right volition (cetana), (2) the associated mental states (cetasika), (3) mental control (samvara), and (4) the actual non-transgression (in body and speech) of the course of conduct already in the mind by way of the preceding three silas, called avitikkama. Samvara is spoken of as being of five kinds, viz. (1) patimokkha-samvara (the control which saves him who abides by it), (2) sati-samvara(the control of mindfulness), (3) #ana- samvara (the control of knowledge), (4) Rhanti-samvara (the control of patience) and (5) viriya-samvara (the control of active restraint). Patimokkha-samvara means all self-control in general. Sati-samvara means the mindfulness by which one can bring in the right and good associations, when using one’s cognitive senses. Even when looking at any tempting object, a man will, by virtue of his mindful- ness (satz), control himself from being tempted by not thinking of its tempting side and by thinking on such aspects of it as may lead in the right direction. Khanti-samvara is that by which one can remain unperturbed in heat and cold. By the proper adherence to sila all our bodily, mental and vocal activities (kamma) are duly systematized, organized and stabilized (samadhanam, upadharanam, patittha). The practice of sila is for the practice of jhana (medita- tion). As a preparatory measure thereto, a man must train himself 1 Gitd, IV. 42; XVIII. 72. xiv] The Ethics of the Gita and the Buddhist Ethics 501 continually to view with disgust the appetitive desires for eating and drinking (ahare patikiila-sanna) by emphasizing in the mind the various troubles that are associated with seeking food and drink and their ultimate loathsome transformations as various nauseating bodily elements. He must habituate his mind to the idea that all the parts of our body are made up of the four elements, viz. ksiti (earth), ap (water), etc. He should also think of the good effects of sila, the making of gifts, of the nature of death and of the deep nature and qualities of the final extinction of all phenomena, and should practise brahma-vihara, as the fourfold meditation of universal friendship, universal pity, happiness in the prosperity and happiness of all, and indifference to any kind of preferment for himself, his friend, his enemy or a third party!. The Gita does not enter into any of these disciplinary measures. It does not make a programme of universal altruism or hold that one should live only for others, as is done in Mahayana ethics, or of the virtues of patience, energy for all that is good (virya as kusalotsaha), meditation and true knowledge of the essencelessness of all things. The person who takes the vow of saintly life takes the vow of living for the good of others, for which he should be prepared to sacrifice all that is good for him. His vow does not limit him to doing good to his co-religionists or to any particular sects, but applies to all human beings, irrespective of caste, creed or race, and not only to human beings, but to all living beings. Mahayana ethical works like the Bodhi-caryavatara- panjika or Siksa-samuccaya do not deal merely with doctrines or theories, but largely with practical instructions for becoming a Buddhist saint. They treat of the practical difficulties in the path of a saint’s career and give practical advice regarding the way in which he may avoid temptations, keep himself in the straight path of duty, and gradually elevate himself to higher and higher States. The Gita is neither a practical guide-book of moral efforts nor a philosophical treatise discussing the origin of immoral tendencies and tracing them to certain metaphysical principles as their sources; but, starting from the ordinary frailties of attach- ment and desires, it tries to show how one can lead a normal life of duties and responsibilities and yet be in peace and contentment -in a state of equanimity and in communion with God. The Gita 1 See A History of Indian Philosophy, by S. N. Dasgupta, vol. 1, p. 103. 502 The Philosophy of the Bhagavad-gita [cH. has its setting in the great battle of the Maha-bharata. Krsna is represented as being an incarnation of God, and he is also the charioteer of his friend and relation, Arjuna, the great Pandava hero. The Pandava hero was a Ksattriya by birth, and he had come to the great battle-field of Kuruksetra to fight his cousin and opponent King Duryodhana, who had assembled great warriors, all of whom were relations of Arjuna, leading mighty armies. In the first chapter of the Gita a description is given of the two armies which faced each other in the holy field (dharma-ksetra) of Kuruksetra. In the second chapter Arjuna is represented as feeling dejected at the idea of having to fight with his relations and of eventually killing them. He says that it was better to beg from door to door than to kill his respected relations. Krsna strongly objects to this attitude of Arjuna and says that the soul is immortal and it is impossible to kill anyone. But, apart from this metaphysical point of view, even from the ordinary point of view a Ksattriya ought to fight, because it is his duty to do so, and there is nothing nobler for a Ksattriya than to fight. The fundamental idea ‘of the Gita is that a man should always follow his own caste-duties, which are his own proper duties, or sva-dharma. Even if his own proper duties are of an inferior type, it is much better for him to cleave to them than to turn to other people’s duties which he could well perform. It is even better to die cleaving to one’s caste-duties, than to turn to the duties fixed for other people, which only do him harm}. The caste-duties of Brahmins, Ksattriyas, Vaisyas and Siidras are fixed in accordance with their natural qualities. Thus sense- control, control over mind, power of endurance, purity, patience, sincerity, knowledge of worldly things and philosophic wisdom are the natural qualities of a Brahmin. Heroism, bravery, patience, skill, not to fly from battle, making of gifts and lordliness are the natural duties of a Ksattriya. Agriculture, tending of cattle and trade are the natural duties of a Sitidra. A man can attain his highest only by performing the specific duties of his own caste. God pervades this world, and it is He who moves all beings to work. A man can best realize himself by adoring God and by the performance of his own specific caste-duties. No sin can come to a man who performs his own caste-duties. Even if one’s caste-duties were sinful or wrong, it would not be wrong Gita tt. 356 xiv] The Ethics of the Gita and the Buddhist Ethics 503 for a man to perform them; for, as there is smoke in every fire, so there is some wrong thing or other in all our actions!. Arjuna is thus urged to follow his caste-duty as a Ksattriya and to fight his enemies in the battle-field. If he killed his enemies, then he would be the master of the kingdom; if he himself was killed, then since he had performed the duties of a Ksattriya, he would go to Heaven. If he did not engage himself in that fight, which was his duty, he would not only lose his reputation, but would also transgress his own dharma. Such an instruction naturally evokes the objection that war necessarily implies injury to living beings; but in reply to such an objection Krsna says that the proper way of performing actions is to dissociate one’s mind from attachment ; when one can perform an action with a mind free from attachment, greed and selfishness, from a pure sense of duty, the evil effects of such action cannot affect the performer. The evil effects of any action can affect the performer when in performing an action he has 2 motive of his own to fulfil. But, if he does not seek anything for himself, if he is not overjoyed in pleasures, or miserable in pains, his works cannot affect him. A man should therefore surrender all his desires for selfish ends and dedicate all his actions to God and be in com- munion with Him, and yet continue to perform the normal duties of his caste and situation of life. So long as we have our bodies, the necessity of our own nature will drive us to work. So it is impossible for us to give up all work. To give up work can be significant only if it means the giving up of all desires for the fruits of such actions. If the fruits of actions are given up, then the actions can no longer bind us to them. That brings us in return peace and contentment, and the saint who has thus attained a per- fect equanimity of mind is firm and unshaken in his true wisdom, and nothing can sway him to and fro.