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Similar rules were recorded for the guidance of every man in every action of his daily life. It would appear that the writers of the Dharma Sastras revelled in the power which they obtained over the actions of the people ; they multiplied rules and regulations beyond the conception of ordinary mortals ; and they condescended to give no reasons for the rules, their ipse dixit was law ! Nations were treated worse than children ; they must ask no reason, exercise no discretion of their own, shew no signs of independent judgment, but act just as they were told to act, for thus it was laid down in texts ! The texts were followed, even when they were silly or harmful, so long as the Hindus remained steeped in ignorance under the Musalman rule. The texts are now unfortunately dis- obeyed, even when they are rational and beneficial, for modern Hindus demand a reason and not the ipse dixit of men however ancient and holy. It is impossible to convey by quotations any idea Digitized by Google CHAP. VII.] DOMESTIC AND SOCIAL LIFE. 339 how rules were multiplied ; for such passages are numer- ous and fill all the Dharma Sastras. One passage is just as good as another, and we quote a passage at random. Daksha tells us that one should wash his hands and feet after returning from a bath in some tank or river. The matter is very simple, and Hindus of all nations might be trusted to use their discretion in this matter. But no : — the legislator must lay down laws even in such a matter as this. And the laws are grotesque enough. " 14. After washing the feet and hands, one should carefully examine the water and drink it three times ; then he should wipe his mouth twice with the root of the thumb, somewhat bent. " 15. Having thus wiped the mouth three times he should wipe his feet and touch the different parts of his body. * 16. He should then touch his nose by the forefinger joined to the thumb ; and then he should repeatedly rub his eyes and ears with the thumb joined with the middle finger. " 17. Then with his thumb and little finger he should touch his navel, and with the palm of his hand he should touch his chest. Then with all the fingers he should touch the head, and then with the ends of his fingers he should touch his arms." Rules multiplied in this manner defeat their own ob- ject They seek to bind down the people in all their acts and movements ; but they end by being disregard* Digitized by Google 340 PAURANIK PERIOD. [BOOK V. ed even in their most essential points. Such has been the natural fate of the Dharma Sastras in modern times. It is scarcely necessary to dwell long on the subject of criminal and civil laws and administration, for the rules we find in the Pauranik Institutes are more or less based on the earlier Institutes which we have reviewed in the foregoing Books. The king should reside in a stronghold and appoint governors of districts, gover- nors of a hundred villages, governors of ten villages, and governors of single villages ; and it was the duty of these governors to suppress crime and administer the law, {Vishnu III, 6 to 15.) The king should also appoint revenue officers for working mines, levying taxes, tolls, and ferry dues, and for his elephants and forests, (Vishnu III, 16.) A sixth part of the produce of land, two per cent, on cattle, gold and clothes, and a sixth part of flesh, honey, clarified butter, herbs, per- fumes, flowers, roots, fruits, liquids, and condiments, wood, leaves, skins, earthen pots, stone vessels, and bamboo work could be levied as tax. Ten per cent, on home manufactures and five per cent, on imports went to the royal exchequer. Artisans, manual labourers and Sudras were to work one day in the month for the king. {Vishnu, III, 22 to 32.) Parasara speaks of re- ligious taxes also, and says that the king was entitled to one-sixth of the produce, the gods to i T part, and Brahmans to J* (II, 14.) Brahmans were free from all taxes! Digitized by Google CHAP. VII.] DOMESTIC AND SOCIAL LIFE. 341 The laws of conquest were humane, and annexa- tion was not recommended. " The king, having con- quered the capital of his foe, should invest there a prince of the royal race of that country with the royal dignity." ( Vishnu III, 47. ) The laws of inheritance are mainly the same as in the earlier Institutes. ( Ydjnavalkya II, 116 to 135 ; Vishnu XVII and XVIII, &c.) The rate of interest is also the same, ^/£.,one-eightieth per month on good security, & e., fifteen per cent, per annum. Exorbitant interests were charged when there was risk. Ten per cent, per month was the rate from merchants going abroad and twenty per cent, per month from merchants going to sea. ( Ydj- navalkya II, 38 & 39.) For criminal trials, ordeals by fire, by water, and by poison are spoken of {Ydjnavalkya IT, 106 to 115; Vishnu XI, XII & XIII); although these barbarous methods were falling into disuse. All cases, and specially civil cases, were decided by oral and documentary evidence, and Vishnu has two chapters (VII & VIII) on the nature of documents and the competence of persons to appear as witnesses. Wit- nesses were solemnly exhorted to speak the truth, and truth was held in high esteem. " Truth, " says Vishnu, ■ makes the sun spread his rays, Truth makes the moon shine, Truth makes the wind blow, Truth makes the earth bear, Truth makes the water flow, Truth makes the fire burn, Truth makes the atmosphere and the gods Digitized by Google 342 PAURANIK PERIOD. [BOOK V. and offerings exist. If Truth and a thousand horse- sacrifices are weighed against each other, Truth ranks higher than a thousand horse-sacrifices." (VIII, 27 to 36.) The punishments for various crimes are similar to those in the older Institutes. YAjnavalkya lays down that murderers and thieves of cattle should be impaled, pick-pockets should suffer mutilation, and mi- nor thefts were dealt with otherwise (II, 276 to 278). Murderesses and women who destroyed causeways (so as to inundate a village) were to be drowned (II, 281). Women who attempted to poison or set fire to houses or killed their husbands or children should be mutilat- ed, and trampled to death by cattle (II, 282). Adul- tery was punished according to the caste of the wo- men dishonored ; and Yajnavalkya lays down the ini- quitous law that adultery with a woman of a lower caste is not punishable ! (II, 291.) Similarly a fine is consi- dered a sufficient punishment for deflowering a Buddhist nun ! (II, 296.) Vishnu lays down that one who forges royal edicts or private documents should be put to death, and poisoners, incendiaries, robbers, and killers of women, children or men, and all great offenders should be executed (V, I, 9, 10, and 11). Bralimans were not to be executed for any offence, however heinous ! ( Vishnu V, 2). Laws of excessive severity and cruelty are laid down for Sudras. If one strikes one of a superior caste, he should be muti- lated ; if he abuses such a person his tongue should be Digitized by Google CHAP. VII.] DOMESTIC AND SOCIAL LIFE. 343 cut out ; if he pretends to instruct such a person, hot oil should be dropped into his mouth {Vishnu V, 19, 23 & 24). If one who should not be touched defiles a twice- born man by touching him, he should be put to death. {Vishnu V, 104.) It may safely be asserted that such inhuman laws were never enforced even by Brah- man judges ; but the presence of these laws in the In- stitutes is an indelible stain, which the caste-system has thrown, on Hindu legal literature and on the Hindu nation. Digitized by Google CHAPTER VIII. HINDU AND JAINA ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE. We have in a previous chapter spoken of Buddhist architecture in India. The history of Buddhist archi- tecture closes with the fifth century. There are few specimens of any importance after 500 A.D. On the other hand, Hindu temple architecture, judging from existing specimens, begins at this date and continues down to the 17th and 18th centuries after the Christian Era. These facts which are recorded on imperishable stone all over India, confirm and justify the division which we have made between the Buddhist Period and the later Hindu or Pauranik Period. Another fact deserves our consideration. Hindu temple architecture commences, as we have said, with the 6th century A.D. ; nevertheless, except in Orissa, the specimens of Hindu temples of the sixth, seventh, eighth, and even ninth centuries are rare. From the latter end of the ninth century Hindu temples multiply all over India, and they increase in dimensions and grandeur as they deteriorate in taste through subse- quent centuries. Here also architecture only confirms historic facts. Temple worship and temple building were not a part Digitized by Google CHAP. VIII.] HINDU & JAINA ARCHITECTURE, &C. 345 of the Hindu religion before the Buddhist revolu- tion. Down to the fifth century after Christ Bud- dhism was still the prevailing religion; and although Pauranik Hinduism gradually became the dominant faith from the sixth century, the innovation of temples could make head but slowly, and specimens of superb temples of the sixth and seventh centuries are rare in Northern India. Then followed the period of political convulsions, the ruin of ancient dynasties, the disap- pearance of ancient races. When the Rajput and other cognate races at last became the masters of Northern India in the ninth century, a complete change had come over the ideas of the nation. Temple worship was proudly asserted by priests and encouraged by kings. And Rajput chiefs and kings proved their devo- tion to Hinduism by those beautiful and magnificent edifices which struck the early Musalman conquerors of India.