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How sadly different were these degenerate customs from those of the chivalric age of the Kurus and the Pan- chllas and the Kosalas, when a Maitreyl and a G&rgl were honoured and a SitA was conceived and when Hindus "could understand and appreciate true woman- hood."* • Oldenberg s Buddha. Digitized 332 PAURANIK PERIOD. [BOOK V. We have stated before that the burning of widows was unknown to the Hindus before the Pauranik times. It was originally a Scythian custom, and was pro- bably introduced in India by the Scythian invaders who poured into India in the Buddhist Age, and formed ruling Hindu races later on. The later Dharma S&stras all belaud the barbarous custom, which was unknown to Manu or even to Yajnavalkya. Vishnu, Atri, Usanas, Pardsara, Vyisa, and Daksha allude to this custom, and the passages which allude to it have been indicated in Chapter VI of this book. While the duties of a woman are thus strictly laid down, even to her immolation on her husband's funeral pyre, the duties of a man consist mostly in the perform- ance of numerous religious rites and in hospitality and gifts. Daksha in his second chapter recommends the pious Hindu to bathe early in the morning, and assigns different duties to the eight different portions of the day. In the first part of the day (say from 6 to 7^ A. M.) he is to utter his prayers, worship his gods ; while those who keep the sacrificial fire (a custom which was falling into disuse) should offer sacrifices also. In the second part of the day < say 7% to 9 A. M.) he is to study the Vedas. In the third part (9 to io l / 2 A. M.) he is to look after household affairs and the maintenance of his family and dependants. From 10% to 12 noon he is to perform his ablutions, utter the Gayatri or prayer to the sun. After mid-day (12 to 1% P.M.) he will perform the digitized by GoogI CHAP. VII.] DOMESTIC AND SOCIAL LIFE. 333 Makdrajnas, 1*., make offerings to the gods, to departed ancestors, to men, to spirits, and to all living creatures, and then take his meals. A little rest is prescribed after meals in the sixth portion of the day (1^ to 3 p.m.) and then (3 to 4^ p.m.) he will read Puranas and ItMsa legends, and thus spend his time in quiet and pious recreation. In the eighth and last portion of the day (4^ to 6 P.M.) he will look again into his worldly affairs, and at sunset he will utter his prayers again, and if he keeps a sacrificial fire, will perform sacrifice. After this he is to take evening meals, look after domestic affairs, read a little of the Vedas, and then retire to rest. Such is the picture of the life of a pious and contemplative and quiet Hindu of the olden times, to whom the hurry and turmoil and incessant work of modern European life would have been an enigma and a mystery ! The custom of keeping a sacrificial fire in every household and performing Yajnas or sacrifices was fall- ing into disuse, as we have stated before ; but the five Mahayajnas or daily offerings still continued to be practised by pious Hindus. ( Ydjnavalkya I, 102 ; K&- tydyana XIII, 2 ; Sankha III, 2 ; Samvayta, 44 &c, &c.) Charity to all living creatures and abnegation of self were the very ideal of a pious Hindu life, and the Dharma Sutras insist upon this- as strongly as the earlier Sutra works. Apart again from the Yajnas or sacrifices, there were Digitized by Google 334 PAURANIK PERIOD. [BOOK V. certain domestic ceremonies or sanskdras which Hindus have always loved to perform from the ancient Epic or Rationalistic Age* even to the present age. It would be scarcely an exaggeration to state that these Sanski- ras, more than anything else, differentiate the Hindus from the followers of other creeds or customs. From ancient times they have insisted on these ceremonies for all Hindus, and have described those who did not perform Sanskaras as Vratyas or sceptics. For Hin- duism has been and is a religion regulating life, more than defining intellectual beliefs. The greatest license has been allowed in the matter of intellectual convic- tions ; and Hindus, differing in every possible way in their beliefs and convictions, have been recognized as orthodox, if they lived a Hindu life, and performed the Annaprdsana, the Upanayana, the Hindu cremation and other Hindu domestic rites. Accordingly, we find frequent mention of the Sanska- ras in the Pauranik Dharma Sastras. Even Vyasa's work, one of the latest of the existing Dharma Sastras, does not fail to enumerate 16 domestic ceremonies for the twice-born. The reader will no doubt compare this Pauranik list with interest with the 19 domestic cere- monies of the Rationalistic Age of which a list is given before.f # See Vol, II, pp, 108 to 116, t Volume II, p. 99. Digitized by Google CHAP. VII.] DOMESTIC AND SOCIAL LIFE. 335 Vy&sa's list of Domestic Ceremonies. 1. Garbhadhina. 2. Pumsavana. 3. Simantonnayana. 4. Jatakarman. 5. Namakriya. 6. Nishkramana. 1 ^ n n r\ r ii n ci • 8. Chudakarana. 9. Karnavedha. 10. U pa nay an a. 11. Study of Veda. 12. Kesanta. 13. Snana. 14. Marriage. 15. Lighting the marital fire. 16. Lighting three fires, Vyasa adds that " the first nine up to Karnavedha (piercing of the ear) are also allowable to women, but without mantras. Marriage is to be performed for women with mantras. Sudras are allowed ten Sanskd- ras (f. e. t the first nine and marriage), but without man- tras." VyAsa I, 13 to 16. As might be expected, we have in the Dharma Sistras frequent mention of temples and temple priests and places of pilgrimage, indicating the direction in which Hinduism was inclining. There is mention of temples in Parasara VIII, 37 ; Sankha III, 7 ; Likhi- ta 4 ; Yama 33 ; and various other places. Sankha in Chapter XIV mentions 16 places of pilgrimage as stated before, while Vishnu in Chap. LXXXV mentions over 50 such places from Hurdwar to the Nilgiri Hills. The Pauranik Trinity of Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, was universally acknowledged, and various other gods had found a place in the Pauranik pantheon, as we have seen in Chapter VI. It is needless to add that a belief in the transmigration of souls and in different heavens Digitized by Google 336 PA U RAN IK PERIOD. [BOOK V. and hells formed an important part of the religious beliefs of the Hindus as it does to the present day. References to agriculture, commerce, and to the arts and even the vices of towns give us some idea of the state of society in the Pauranik times. We find a humane rule laid down that a pair of bullocks should not be worked in the plough for more than one prahara, i.e., three hours. (Atri 219). Y&jnavalkya speaks of woollen and cotton fabrics, of skilfully woven fabrics and fabrics covered with wool as also of silken stuffs, and fabrics made of fibres (II, 182, 183). The cultivation and manufacture of indigo have already been alluded to before. The modern reader will learn with still greater interest the rules under which companies were formed to carry on commercial transactions. The passage is worth quoting. "262. The profits and losses of merchants, who work in concert for profit, shall be determined accord- ing to their shares, or according to agreement previously made. "263. The loss which is incurred by violating a rule (of the company), or by acting without the permission (of the company), or by negligence, shall be made good by the party who incurred the loss. The party who saves an amount from loss is entitled to one-tenth of the amount saved." Ydjnavalkya, II. There is also mention of laws against merchants com- bining to unduly enhance the value of commodities, or Digitized by Google CHAP. VII.] DOMESTIC AND SOCIAL LIFE. 337 to unduly lower the prices of imports. When commo- dities are sold immediately after purchase (7. when interest of the capital does not enter into the calcula- tion), merchants are told to be satisfied with a profit of -fen per cent, on imports and of five per cent, on home manufactures (II, 254, 255, 257). These artificial rules seem crude in these days of free-trade and free competition ; but the modern readers cannot forget that laws still more crude regulated trade in Europe a cen- tury or two ago. And lastly, we are told that the king shall fix the prices of commodities on principles stated above (II, 256), but it is needless to state that this rule could never practically be enforced. The king provided gambling houses in towns and appointed guards in such places. {Ydjnavalkya II, 205 and 206.) We shall find evidence in the dramatic litera- ture of the period that the courtezans of the age were not the degraded creatures of modern times, but pos- sessed some virtues, and received some consideration from the citizens, as among the ancient Greeks. Liquor shops also existed in towns, but were frequented only by the low. Drinking among respectable men was always considered a great sin. The education of boys was conducted on the same principles as in the preceding ages. The young student was made over to his guru, assumed the girdle and the staff, begged from door to door to obtain supplies for his teacher, served him menially and looked after his R. c. D., A. I,— III. 22 Digitized by Google 338 PAURANIK PERIOD. [BOOK V. family and cattle, and earned from day to day the reli- gious learning of the ancient Hindus. (Ydinavalkya I, 14 to 50 ; Vishnu XXVIII to XXX, &c). Rules are laid down for the most minute acts and movements of the student during this stage, and the elaboration of the rules is indeed carried to a degree which provokes a smile in the modern reader. But it is not merely for the training of students and for the performance of reli- gious ceremonies that such absurdly detailed rules were laid down.