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Young India takes note of the past and shapes his future accordingly. Already, under the blessings of a healthy education, Sftdras and Brahmans and the sons of the ancient Vaisyas have learnt to work on a common platform for a common native land. Vaisya and Digitized by Google CHAP. VI.] CASTE. 325 Brahman and Sudra have also learnt to mix socially ; they attend the same schools and learn the same lessons together ; they travel in the same railway carriage or steamer, and often take their meals together ; and they attend the same offices and follow the same professions in life. These are hopeful signs, for united work breeds mutual understanding and real union. More than this, Brahmans themselves have been the foremost in this century to efface unhealthy distinctions, and have nobly striven to reunite and to save ; and the names of Ram Mohan Roy and of Dayanand Sarasvati will live in the grateful recollections of the Hindus in centuries to come, when the tribe of captious and pigmy opponents to progress will be deservedly forgotten. The distinctions of centuries and thousands of years cannot be effaced in a day, and young Hindus are acting wisely in shaping their progress to the gradual march of events. But the day is not far distant when men, who work together in friendliness and with a brotherly feeling towards each other, will learn to mix more closely and to celebrate inter-caste marriages ; and the Hindus of a future date will also learn to perform their social and religious ceremonies, and to express their gratitude and devotion and love towards the Great Deity whom they worship, without the help of hereditary priests. Digitized by Google CHAPTER VII. DOMESTIC AND SOCIAL LIFE— THE POSITION OF WOMEN. The rules of domestic and social life which we find in the later Dharma Sastras are based on those which we have reviewed before in our account of the Rational- istic and Buddhist Periods, and often the same verses which we found in the ancient Sfttras and in Manu are quoted in the Pauranik works. Nevertheless, here and there we find alterations, restrictions, or additions, which shew us how the ancient institutions were undergoing a gradual change. The permission given to the twice-born castes to marry SGdra women became restricted as the gulf between the Sftdras and the upper castes became wider in later times. Yajnavalkya distinctly declares, "It has been said that twice-born men may marry Stidra women. This is not my opinion, since one procreates himself on his wife. A Brahman may have three wives (*>., of Brahman, Kshatriya, and Vaisya castes), a Ksha- triya two wives (*.*., of Kshatriya and Vaisya castes), and a Vaisya one wife (of Vaisya caste) ; Sddras should have wives of their caste only." I, 56 & 57. Vishnu allows the twice-born to have Stidra wives (XXIV, 1 to 3), but Digitized by Google CHAP. VII.] DOMESTIC AND SOCIAL LIFE. 327 contradicts himself later on, and prohibits such unions (XXVI, 4), shewing how later interpolators have been busy in making the ancient work consistent with modern customs. Later writers like Sankha (IV, 6 to 9) and Vyasa (II, 11) prohibit the marriage of twice-born men with Sudra women. The ancient eight forms of marriage were also falling into disuse. We have seen that even in the Rationalis- tic Period, Vasishtha and Apastamba* refused to recog- nize two of these forms as marriage, and this feeling became stronger with the lapse of time. Yajnavalkya (I, 58 to 61) like Manu names all the ancient eight forms of marriage, but distinctly declares that the first four only, viz , the Brdhma, the Daiva, the Arsha, and the Prdjdpatya are meritorious and purify ancestors and descendants. Similarly, Vishnu mentions all the eight forms, but adds that the first four only are allowed to Brahmans and purify ancestors and descendants (XXIV, 1 8 to 32). Sankha recommends the first four forms for Brahmans (IV, 3) ; the Rdks/iasa and Gdndharva forms of marriage are allowed to the warrior-caste alone. Harita recommends the Brdhma rite alone for pious Brahmans, " although other forms of marriage are also prescribed according to the custom of different castes " (IV, 2 & 3). The practice of the early marriage of girls which was coming into vogue since the Rationalistic Period is # Seejm/e Vol. II, p. 92. Digitized by Google 328 PAURANIK PERIOD. [BOOK V. insisted upon by the writers of the Pauranik Period. Yajnavalkya tells us that the guardian of a girl becomes guilty of causing miscarriage if he has not given her away when her menses appear (I, 64). Parasara has the revolting couplets which are so often quoted in modern times in support of early marriages. " 6. A girl is (as pure as) Gauri at eight years, at nine she is Rohini, at ten she is simply a maiden, after that she is menstruant. " 7. The father of a girl who does not give her away on her reaching the twelfth year • • • * ♦ # * " 8. The mother, the father, and the elder brother of a girl go to hell on seeing her menstruant while yet unmarried. "9. The Brahman who, perplexed by ignorance, marries such a girl, is the husband of a foul woman ; no one should speak or sit with him." Parasara VIL This is sufficiently strong and filthy language (we have omitted a few words), and shews the narrow and degenerate spirit of the times when it was indited. These injunctions were a favorite with the writers of the age, ami Yama (22 to 24) and Samvarta (66 & 67) quote them, or portions of them, word for word, while Vyasa (II, 7) has an imprecation similar to Yajna- valkya's. While the marriage of girls at a tender age became the custom of the times, the ancient custom of the mar- Digitized by Google CHAP. VII.] DOMESTIC AND SOCIAL LIFE. 329 riage of widows had not yet fallen into disuse. The practice was looked upon with disfavour from the time of Manu, but even to the very close of the Pauranik Period it was not altogether prohibited. On the contrary, we find frequent references to the marriage of widows, and to children born of such marriage, in nearly all the Pau- ranik Dharma Sistras. Yajnavalkya tells us that "a woman who is married a second time, whether she be then a virgin or not, is called a remarried woman " (I, 67). Vishnu tells us that " a woman who being still a virgin is married for the second time is called a remarried woman (Punarbhti)," and the sons of such remarried widows were recognized (XV, 7 & 8). Par£- sara, one of the very latest of the Pauranik writers, allows the second marriage of a woman if her husband be lost or dead, or has become an ascetic, or if he is impotent, or has lost caste (IV, 26). Apastamba refers to remar- ried widows (IX, 29), although with contempt; and Sankha also refers to remarried widows (XV, 13). The religious injunction to leave male issue had induced the early Hindus to recognize irregular methods of raising issue even before the Rationalistic Age. We have seen that in that age there was a reaction against that loose custom, and that Apastamba con- demned it altogether.* Yajnavalkya (II, 131 to 135) and Vishnu (XV, 1 to 27) enumerate the twelve kinds of sons mentioned in * Sec ante Vol, II, p. 62, et seq % Digitized by Google 330 PAURANIK PERIOD. [BOOK V. our account of the Rationalistic Period, but they are not acknowledged by the later Dharma Sistras gene- rally. Par&sara, for instance, acknowledges only four kinds of sons, viz,, Aurasa, Kshetraja, Dattaka, and Kritrima (IV, 19). In modern times only the legiti- mate son (Aurasa) and the adopted son (Dattaka) are recognized by Hindus. Pleasing pictures of domestic life are preserved to us in the Dharma S&stras, shewing that Hindus have ever appreciated and cultivated domestic virtues through all times and through all vicissitudes of their national fortunes. As we read Vy&sa's account of the duties of a wife as narrated in his second chapter, we can almost fancy it is the picture of a duteous and gentle Hindu wife of modern times, trying to discharge her household duties, and seeking to please all of her husband's family. She will rise before her lord at early dawn, clean the house, sweep and clean the room of worship, clean all the utensils and implements of religious worship and put them in order, wash all the utensils of cooking and wipe the hearth, and having thus performed all the preliminary work of the day, will come and do obeisance to her father-in-law, mother-in-law, and others. Having then cooked the food, she will feed the children and then her husband, and will then take her meals with the permission of her lord. In the evening her work commences again, and after her husband has Digitized by Google CHAP. VII.] DOMESTIC AND SOCIAL LIFE. 33 1 gone to bed and fallen asleep, she will lay herself beside him. She is enjoined to abstain from quarrel and avoid harsh language ; to avoid extravagance, anger, duplicity, pride, scepticism, &c. ; and she is instructed to serve her husband to the best of her ability. Those who know the domestic life of modern Hindus are aware that these injunctions have not been given to Hindu wives in vain, and that in obedience and gentle- ness and a regard for their husbands, Hindu women will not compare unfavourably with women in any country in the civilized world. We miss, however, in the Pauranik Dharma Sistras similar injunctions to men to treat their wives with the honour and respect due to equals. On the contrary, the feeling that women were the subjects of men, and belonged to men, and had no independent aim or exist- ence, seemed to grow with the growing degeneracy of the times ; and this feeling ultimately culminated in the prohibition of widow marriage, and in the barbar- ous and inhuman custom of the burning of widows.