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, monasteries which have been taken possession of by a special clan (chia, 3%) among the Buddhists. The monks in these monasteries are often very exclusive and do not care for the opening of a “hall of hospitality” (kua-tan yiian, #} ™# B), where the travelling monks can put up. They do not “k‘ai tan- k*ou”’ (63 #2 11) (open up resting places), as it is called in Buddhist language. In some of the monasteries there are places for binding and storing the scriptures. The printing is done in the larger private printing offices. The Tien-ning Monastery has distinguished itself in this respect, as have also some of the monasteries in Yang- chow, Hangchow, and Ningpo. We have previously mentioned the more modern printing press and book- shop under the auspices of Dr. Ting in Shanghai. It looks, however, as if the centre might soon be changed, to Yangchow, where large buildings for the literary activities of the society are being erected. In Ningpo, a Buddhist magazine has been published. Similar efforts have been made in other places, but without a very long lease of life. One which still appears regularly is the well-known Hat Ch‘ao Yin (i #8): the [263] TRUTH AND TRADITION IN BUDDHISM Sound of the Tide-Wave. The lay devotees have also their own paper. The difference between a monastery (ts‘ung-lin, 3 $k) and a common temple (ssti, miao, an, +, )éi, Hé) is that the monasteries not only are homes of monks, but also to a large extent attend to the ““propagation”’ (the ordination). Therefore, as a rule, the best men, men with a feeling of responsibility and a social spirit, are found in the monasteries, while the more indifferent and worldly, the “traders,” are in the majority in the temples. This is, of course, a mere generalization. Many exceptions are to be found. Although the temple buildings are very different in size, there are, as a rule, not more monks connected with them than are strictly necessary to carry on the “daily business” of service and masses for the dead. _ In addition, some monks who are on pilgrimage may come, but as a rule they only stay for a few days. The temples which belong to the Buddhist society (ssU, miao, +f, Jj) rank highest. Much more mixed and degraded are the municipal temples (kung- miao, 2 i), which abound in city and country. The dominating power in the latter is the “temple association,” a very heterogeneous, and at times very irreligious, group of people. In addition, all who live in the district, even the lowest of the people, think they have a right to the place. The result is that the poor monk who has to attend to the religious side of the business is looked upon as a hired servant. The atmosphere is wholly created by the people of the locality. Therefore these temples may be used for the [264] MONASTIC LIFE most unbelievable purposes, ranging from a common municipal hall of deliberation, to a school, a temporary storehouse for goods, especially coffins, and at night a gambling den. <A good self-respecting monk will never accept an engagement in such a place. The nunneries are small. They are often situated near a big monastery, which, through its trusted men, has the administrative authority over it. The nuns are ordained in the monasteries. Their small sister- hoods are governed by an old and experienced prioress; she in turn appoints the different nuns to manage the different services in the same way as is done in the the monasteries, only on a smaller scale. They have their little temple hall, etce., where they perform their services and meditations often with great piety. They often go out to the homes of the many lay Buddhists among the women and do a great work both from a religious and a financial point of view. Nobody collects so much money or pulls so many invisible strings as do the nuns. There is thus a good reason why the nunneries accompany the monasteries as the moon accompanies the earth! Let us now look a little more closely at the services that are performed in a monastery and the life that goes on inside the high walls. It is the duty of the abbot to engage suitable monks to fill the various positions. His success as an abbot depends largely on the fitness of his choices. The appointments are usually made about New Year and midsummer, and run for six months. Capable monks [265] TRUTH AND TRADITION IN BUDDHISM may, however, be engaged for the monastery in the course of the year, as vacancies occur. As well as the abbot (fang-chang, 7 2), who nominally is the head, there are the “fathers” (i. e., retired abbots, t‘ui-chu ho-shang, 3% J§ #1 fa), who still wish to remain in the monastery. Often they retire to asmall temple, over which they have acquired the right of disposal. If they remain in the monastery they become “lao-ho-shang” (#% il f3), or ‘‘t‘ai-lao ho- shang” (A #% @ 74): “old monks,” or “very old monks,” and, as such, retain the decisive vote in all important cases. At the same time, they are so independent that they can travel where they please, or withdraw for rest and meditation when they wish. From among the older and more reliable monks who have been connected with the monastery for a long time, some are chosen to be members of the main administration, “chien-yiian”’ (& 8%). The first of these is called “‘tu-chien” (#f §%), the others ‘chih-shih” (#1 34) or more inclusively “fu-ssti”’ (#] 3), assistant managers. The number varies with the size of the monastery. ‘These monks hold the most important and . coveted positions forming the “k‘u-fang” (fi ), or business department. They manage the funds and make all purchases. They have their own rooms with offices, and often their own guest room, where they receive the many monks and laymen who come to confer with them. Often they have to travel round the district to collect the land rent from those who farm the fields belonging to the monastery. Many of the monasteries have big estates which form their economic mainstay, [266] MONASTIC LIFE but often these are insufficient, and the monks have to depend upon the benevolent gifts of the pilgrims and payments for masses for the dead, which, from a moral standpoint, form a rather questionable source of income. Besides the main work of administration there is a second big department, the “ k‘o-t‘ang”’ (44 %), or guest department. As the name indicates, it has to do with the reception of guests and is conducted by a very influential monk who is called “chih-k‘o”’ (4n 4), main host. To assist him there is the ‘‘séng-chih”’ ({# ffi), a term which is best rendered, perhaps, by the word “inspector.” He goes round with the host and sees that everything is in proper order. Their rooms are also provided with the symbolic “beating boards.” The monks have to apply to them for permission to go out. The inspector may even censure the abbot if he does not do his duty. Thus the organization of the brotherhood is both autocratic and democratic. In the guest department monks may be appointed particularly as reporters and clerks. In some big monasteries, besides a host, there is also a vice-host and quite a number of assistant hosts. Finally, we have the department of instruction and worship, which comes under the “ ch‘an-t‘ang”’ (ji 3) (the hall of meditation). Here the instructor (Wei-na, #£ 3S) is the head. He is assisted by an older monk, who is called “t‘ang-chu”’ (4 +) (the master of the hall). He has, besides this, a staff of helpers who are partly permanent, partly temporary (yiieh-chung, # 7, and shih-ché, f¥ #). In consultation with the [267] TRUTH AND TRADITION IN BUDDHISM abbot he arranges everything which has to do with worship and the hours of meditation, and appoints serving monks to act as “‘ hsiang-téng”’ (4 #) (waiters) in the temple halls. The “‘séng-chih” (inspector) and the ‘huei-lo’’ (instructor) are the most feared men, and often in their public capacities have to act very severely. The abbot has a number of young assistants who serve him; namely, a body-servant, (t‘ang-yao, ¥ #8), two helpers (shih-ché, f¥ #), a keeper of the wardrobe and all the abbot’s personal be- longings (i-po, #% $k), and a shao-hsiang (4 #) who regulates the incense. A couple of these, carrying his insignia, precede him at the daily masses. They correspond in a way to the acolytes used in some of the Christian churches. In the dining-room, or refectory, there are two waiters, who are called “hsing-t‘ang” (4 #). They are assisted by a number of serving lay brethren (tao- jén, 3@ A). Laymen are often employed in the lower, serving positions, as in the kitchen (ta-liao, % ¥€), but two or three monks are there, too, engaged in the cooking and serving. A number of monks also serve as attendants in the main temple, as well as in the smaller chapels and halls. They see that the incense does not burn out, that the place is cleaned and swept, and in addition receive the visiting pilgrims who come to per- form their worship at the different altars. In this way they now and then get tips. They are called “hsiang- teng” (% it). Finally monks also act as gate-keepers. At times, one sees experienced monks taking care of the landed property or occupied in other practical [268] MONASTIC LIFE affairs. Monks also carry all the water and the large amount of food-stuffs needed. In describing these things, we must also mention the distinction made in the monasteries between the “tung-tan”’ (3% Hi) and the “‘hsi-tan”’ (#7 #): the Kast party and the West party. Some have understood this distinction to mean that the former attended only to the worship and the latter to the practical activities. This is not quite correct.