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found in Java seem to date from the fifth century and they are Vaishwava *, Buddhism was, according to I-tsing, chiefly the Hinay4na, but it is remarkable indeed that the ancient ruins of the temple of Kalasam (Kalasa) and the Vihara of Chandi Sari (dating from 779) indicate that the Buddhism here prevalent was a later form of the so-called Mahdyana, as proved by the discovery of the images ‘of Dhy4ni Buddhas, Akshobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitébha or Amoghasiddha ‘. The Buddhist faith, whether the Hinayana or Mahdy4na, possibly lasted till the propagation of Islam, as was the case with Sumatra. 5. Tan-tan (Natuna). 6. P€n-p‘én (Pempen). 4. P‘o-li (Bali), According to Mr. Bretschneider®, the islands of Natuna were called Tan-tan, which is probably I-tsing’s Tan-tan. Tan-tan (Don-din) of the History of Sui (518-617) °, which is supposed to be in Southern Siam or Northern Malacca, if correct, is not the island here mentioned, for our author knows that Siam * Lassen, vol. iv, p. 482. Not the ‘country of barley,’ for Java and Sumatra never produce barley, but millet is there called Java (Essays, second series, vol. i, pp. 132, 137)- ? Loe. cit., p. 141; the Descriptions of the Barbarians, of the same date, mentions Java, at one place Maha-Java; Yule, Marco Polo, vol. ii, chap. ix, p. 266; Sumatra is also ‘ Java the less,’ Sumatra, perhaps Skt. Samudra, the ‘sea.’ Cf. Ch. Nan-hai. % Prof. Kern, Over den invlow der Indische, Arab. en Europ. beschaving op de Volken van den Ind. Archipel., p..7; Yule, Marco Polo, vol. ii, chap. ix, p. 267. 7 NOTES ON GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. xlix (Dvaravatt) is not one of the islands of the sea, and mentions no continental place among them. Besides, the identification of Dondin is by no means conclusive Colonel Yule marks Andaman Islands ‘ Dondin?’ Pén-p‘én, I think, represents modern Pembuan on the southern coast of Borneo. This seems to be right, for I-tsing says that P'u-p‘én (=P*‘én-p’én) was situated in the north of Kalinga (N.E. Java)’. There is, however, a place named P‘an-p‘an ? in the southern part of Siam, which may be the present P'un-p'in or Bandon. But this identification is again very doubtful. P'o-li, probably the present Bali Island, E. of Java, was called P'ang-li by the Chinese *, but the accounts given. of this island are very scanty. Owing to the interesting discovery of the Kavi literature there, the name is now well known to us. I should refer my readers to Mr. R. Friedrich’s Account of the Island of Bali (Essays on Indo-China, second series, vol. ii). 8. K‘u-lun (K‘un-lun, Pulo Condore). K‘u-lun is identicalewith K‘un-lun, the Chinese name for Pulo Condore. The native name is Kon-non, Condore being a corruption of it. The Arab travellers . of the ninth century call this group of islands by the name of Sundar ¢ Fiilat, while. Marco Polo names the same Sundur and Condur. It consists of one isle of twelve miles long, two of two or three miles, and some six other smaller isles, the largest being specially called Pulo Condore. According to I-tsing, the people of these isles alone are woolly-haired with black complexion (p. 12). We often hear from Chinese writers of the ‘slaves from K‘un-lun, later signifying slaves in general, without any reference to the land where they came from. ‘The inhabitants in I-tsing’s time appear to have been negroes; the com- mentator K4syapa also, quoting an early authority, describes them as if of a different race : ‘ K‘u-lun, Ku-lun, and K‘un-lun are one and the same country. In this country no ceremony or courtesy is observed. The people live by robbing and pirating. They are fond of man’s flesh, like Rakshasas or some wicked demons. ‘ Their language is not correct. ‘They differ from the other barbarians, They are skilled in diving in the water, and if they will, can stay all day long in the } Chavannes, Memoirs, p. 77. 2 The New History of T‘ang (618-906), book 222%; Essays, p. 241. 3 The Hsing-ch‘a-shéng-lan (1436). a Yi, Be Aas NPale Harhone Sanekere Sandan: * heaniital ” 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION. water without any suffering.’ This peculiar people, however, seems to have embraced Buddhism to some degree, for I-tsing mentions a monastery with a peculiar clepsydra given by the king of the island (p. 145), and further says, though accidentally, that they praise Sanskrit Sfttras (p. 169). Two kinds of cloves grow there (p. 129). ¢ One may well wonder why the K‘un-lun language was prevalent in Sumatra or Sribhoga in I-tsing’s time’. One must not, however, be misled by the word K‘un- lun, when used as the name of a language, for it has been for some time a general name for all the Southern Sea (cf. p. 11), and therefore the ‘ K‘un-lun-yii’ must mean the Malay language. The islands of Pulo Condore had nothing to do with it, though the inhabitants might have shared in speaking a dialect of the K‘un-lun language. 9. Fo-shih-pu-lo (Bhoga-pura). Fo-shih-pu-lo is no doubt Bhoga-pura in its original form, but it is not Bhoga, - the capital of Sribhoga, the modern Palembang. Mr. C. Baumgarten, writing to Prof. Max Miller (Feb. 20, 1883), says that Surabaja is the second city in Java, and that we still have a place there called Boja-nagara and the whole province Boja; and he adds that the seventh century seems to have been the golden age of Buddhism in Java*. This is probably I-tsing’s Bhogapura, and further we have here perhaps the origin of the name Sri-Bhoga, for Palembang was certainly a colony of Java. to, A-shan or O-shan. xr, Mo-chia-man (Maghaman). A-shan may at first seem to represent Atchin in Sumatra. But this is not likely, for the original and correct form of Atchin seems to have been Atjeh or Ach'i, which was afterwards corrupted by Europeans into Atchin or Acheen. As it comes after Bhogapura, it seems to be somewhere in the eastern part of Java near Bali; it may-be the present Ajang *. As to Mo-chia-man, I have nothing to say about it, except that it may phonetically represent Maghaman or Maghavan, Ma-shé-wéng or Ma-yeh-wéng‘, * Chavannes, Memoirs, p. 159; Koen-luen there. ? This is well founded; the temple of Kélase and the adjoining monumental Vibra date from 779, as attested by a Sanskrit inscription in Old Nagart; besides, I-tsing’s Record indicates the same, * As to such names as Ajang, Bandjermasin, or Kota, Iam not able to judge whether they are of ancient or modern origin. * Essays, p, 202. NOTES ON GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. li the position of which is not certain, may be the same island. It may have been meant for Madura. MII, Further India or Indo-China. Sri-kshatra or -kshetra (Thare Khettara). Lankasu (Kamalanka). Dvadravati (=Ayuthya)}. q. Poh-nan eas ine iam: oF Champa (originally Kampé). ; Pi-king, in Annam. 4. Kwan-chou (probably near Tong-king). ARE wy The position of Sri-kshatra can be settled pretty satisfactorily. According to the Burmese, the king Mahdsambhava built a city called Thare Khettara in the .. ” sixtieth year of the Buddha?, and established the Prome dynasty, which flourished 578 years. Some remains of the city are still to be seen a few miles to the east of the present town of Prome*. This account alone is enough to determine its position, and it is not to be placed in Upper Burma as in Vivien de Saint-Martin’s map to Julien’s Si-yu-ki, The identification with Silhat is therefore quite inad- missible. I-tsing’s description roughly corresponds with the position of Thare Khettara ; besides, we have the account of Hiuen Thsang, which we shall consider presently. According to I-tsing, Lahkasu is S.E. of Sri-kshatra, and Dvaravat? is E. of Lahkasu. Thus we have to give up the supposition that I4sing’s Dvaravatt may be that Dwarawati of the Burmese, which latter is, if Captain St. John is correct (p. 10 below), Old Tangu and Sandoway, for these lie in quite an opposite direction and cannot be S.E. of Prome. Hiuen Thsang’s Darapati or Dvarapati as well as our Dvdravati no doubt represents Ayuthya (or Ayudhya), the ancient capital of Siam; this becomes clear from the fact that I-tsing’s description of the positions of the countries counted from China’s side acgually ends with Poh-nan, E. Siam (p. 9). Hiuen Thsang* mentions Karna-suvarva, Samata/a, and Sri- kshatra, and says: ‘Going S.E. from Strikshatra there is in the bay of the sea Kamalanka; to E. of this, Dvarapati (or Dérapati). Further to E., there is Tsdnapura ‘; to E. of this, MahdZampa, and to S.W. of Mah4éampa, Yen-mo-lo- 1 The Burmese calendar places the Buddha’s death in 544 B.C.3 A.B, 60 is therefore B.c. 484, if corrected, about B.C. 424. ? Asiatic Researches, vol. xx, p. 171. * Julien, Mémoires, liv. x, pp. 82, 83; Beal, Life, p. 132. PAE ET hist Sen ee cae Neg ey ee a li GENERAL INTRODUCTION. chou’ (probably ‘Yavanadvipa, meaning Sumatra). The reader will see that I-tsing’s Lankasu is here Kamalanka, Poh-nan, fsanapura, and Champa (p. 12), Mahdfampa ; and we know from our Record that Pi-king (Turan or Hue) is N. of Champa, and that still further north one reaches Kwan-chou (near Tong-king) after a month’s journey on foot, or five or six tides, if aboard ship. Thus all these statements are pretty clear, and in harmony with one another '. IV. India and Ceylon. I-tsing calls India in general the West (Si-fang), the Five Countries of India (Wu-tien), Aryadesa (A-li-ya-t'i-sha), Madhyadesa (Mo-ti-t'i-sha), BrahmarAshéra (Po-lo-mén-kuo), or Gambudvipa (Chan-pu-chou). ‘Hindu (Hsin-tu) *” he says, ‘is the name used only by the northern tribes (p. 118), and the people of India themselves do not know it. Indu (Yi in-tu) i is by some derived front the name of the moon, Indu (Hiuen Thsang, Mém. ii, 56), but it is not a proper name.