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Gautama \.\ I . \ Drdhydyana ( Khadira I.dtydyana ( Baiidhdyana ' Apastamba ' j Hiranyakesin \ Bhdradvdja ( Baudhdyana J Apastamba ' I Hiranyakesin ( Bhdradvdja 2. Kdthaka f Baudhdyana I . \ Apastamba { Hiranyakesin 3. Mdnava 3. Mdnava [3. Mdnava~\ i. Kdtydyana I . Pdraskara Vail at t a Kausika Kausika 76 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY CO < w { 8 s a w o p i H £J ? SUTRAS AND SUTTAS 77 14. The Buddhist Tripitaka 1. The Vinaya Pitaka: the Discipline Basket, the rules of the monastic life.1 (a) Sutta Vibhahga. (b) Khandhakas. (1) Mahavagga. (2) Chullavagga. (c) Parivdra. 2. The Sutta Pitaka : the Sermon Basket, the teaching of the Buddha. (a) Dig ha Nik ay a. (b) Majjhima Nikdya. (c) Samyutta Nikdya. (d) Ahguttara Nikdya. (e) Khuddaka Nikdya. 3. Tfie Abhidhamma Pitaka : the Exposition Basket, an enlarged and detailed treatment of Buddhist doctrine. (a) Dhamma Sangani. (b) Vibhahga. (c) Kathd Vatthu. (d) Puggala Pannatti. (e) Dhdtu Kathd. (f) Yamakas. (g) Patthdna. 1 This part of the Buddhist canon was kept secret by the monks, and was not revealed even to the Buddhist laity. Most of the monastic orders seem to have refused to divulge their disciplinary rules. 78 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY 15. The Four Asramas or Stages of Brahmanic Life During the scholastic period, it was recognized that the ideal life for a Brahman was to spend twelve years as a studentj then to marry and beget children, and then to retire to the forest as a hermit, taking his wife with him, if he chose to do so. At a still later date a fourth stage was added : the Brahman was recommended, after he had lived as a hermit,, to end his days as a houseless parivrajaka, thinking only of God. 1. Brahmachari ; student. 2. Grihastha: householder, the ordinary Brahman priest. 3. Vdnaprastha : forest-dweller, hermit. 4. Parivrajaka : wanderer, houseless monk. farrcrro CHAPTER VII INCARNATION PERIOD POLITICAL TROUBLES : THE DHARMA^ASTRAS From the Fall of the Asokan Empire to the Rise of the Guptas, 184 B.C. to A.D. 320 53. History. The largest fact in the history of these centuries is the irruption of hordes of invaders from Central Asia across the Indus both in the north and in the south. Necessarily these invasions created great disturbances, and produced considerable mixture in the population of the frontier provinces. The break-up of the Asokan Empire also led to many revolutions and upheavals. There was thus much violence and frequent political change throughout these centuries in Northern and Central India. We need not here catalogue the many various dynasties which followed each other east, west, north, and south. We need only notice the rise of the one great empire which appeared during our period. This was the kingdom of the Kushans, a people from Central Asia, their greatest ruler being Kan- ishka. Peshawar was their capital ; and that city, during the first and second centuries of our era, was the centre of a NOTE. — The text at the top of the page is A COUPLET ON INCARNA TION put into the mouth of Krishna : ' To save the righteous, to destroy evil-doers, to establish the Law, I come into birth age after age.' Bhagavadgita, iv. 8. So OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY flourishing civilization in which Indian ideas mingled freely with the influence of Persia and of the Roman Empire. These kings would appear to have favoured Hinduism and Zoroastrianism quite as much as Buddhism ; yet the latter religion clearly dominated the country round Peshawar. Architecture flourished, and a famous school of sculpture arose under Greek influence. The art of the kingdom is known as Gandharan art (see Figs. 9, n, 14, 1 6 and pp. 198 and 202). Buddhism found a new base for its operations in Peshawar ; and Sanskrit first came to the front as the common language of India in the Kushan Empire. 54. Religion. Under Asoka and his obscure successors Buddhism was greatly fa voured. Vast sums of money were spent on Buddhist buildings ; and it seems clear from Asoka's edicts that various laws and regulations were enforced which would please Buddhist monks and would necessarily greatly dis- With the fall of the great empire and 9. RELIC-CASKET Recently discovered in the ruins of Kanishka's stupa at Peshawar. The casket is of dark metal and is seven inches high. Contained a rock-crystal reliquary containing bones, said to be Buddha's. On top of casket Buddha and two other figures. Note the haloes. Beneath is Kanishka himself. (From Jour nal of Royal Asiatic Society.*) please Brahmans. the rise of the Sungas to power in Magadha, the tables were turned ; for the new dynasty favoured the Brahmans as much as the old favoured Buddhism. Patanjali, author of the Commentary on Panini's Sutras and founder of the Yoga philosophy, was the priest of Pushyamitra, the first INCARNATION 81 Sunga king, and refers to his celebration of the Asvamedha, or horse-sacrifice, which is a public claim to imperial power. The influence and favour of the court led to great literary activity on the part of the priests. 55. The main feature of the religious history of the period as a whole is this, that Hin duism and Buddhism now stand opposed to each other as rivals, and influence each other very greatly in many ways. 56. One very noteworthy change occurred in Hinduism at this time and, as we shall see, a similar change passed over Buddhism. While at the beginning of the fifth century B.C. Rama and Krishna were but human heroes, they were already worshipped in the time of Megasthenes, the Seleucid ambassador at the court of Chandragupta ; and by the opening of the second century B.C. they were acknowledged to be incarnations of Vishnu. In the first and last books of the Ramayana,) which were written in the second century B.C., Rama is represented as an incarnation of half the essence of Vishnu, and in the additions made to the Mahabharata about the same time Krishna is regarded as a minor divinity and in some sense as an incarnation of Vishnu. (See section 63.) 10. THE BOAR INCARNATION OK VISHNU This relief is at Mahavellipore. It represents Vishnu in his boar avatam with his wife Lakshml. Beneath is a five -hooded Naga, or divine snake. (Photograph by Wiele & Klein.) S2 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY During the next three centuries this rich warm worship of incarnate divinities became entwined with the philosophy of the Atman, and first Krishna and then Rama rose to the lofty position of incarnations of the Supreme. Krishna occurs in this guise in the latest parts of the Mahabharata, dating perhaps from the second century A.D., and also in the Bhagavadgltd. (See sections 63 and 64.) Certain of the old myths of the Vedas and Brahmanas were transformed into incarnations of Vishnu, and others were created. The series of semi-animal and other incarna tions (avataras is the Hindu word) which are supposed to have preceded Rama and Krishna was thus formed. This ii. HINDU IDOLATRY A coin of Kadj.liises II, the Kushan king who preceded Kanishka. The reverse gives us Siva with his bull and his trident. Time, first century A. D. (V. Smith, Early History of India."; long line of Yishnuite incarnations is parallel to the long list of mythical Buddhas which grew up in the Buddhist Church and the similar list of mythical Tirthakaras which took form in Jainism at this time. (See p. 97.) These new forms of faith, so well calculated to stir emotion and to provoke enthusiastic worship, naturally led to a great growth of Vishnuism. The leading school of Vishnuites were called Bhagavatas, i.e. worshippers of the Bhagavan,, the Adorable Lord. Unlike the teachers of the Vedanta, who held that only the three highest castes could reach Release, because INCARNATION 83 they alone were allowed to read the Upanishads, the Bhag- avatas offered salvation to all. But the cult of Siva did not lag behind. The sacred bull became his companion ; the trident was connected with him; the phallic symbol, the lihga, was adopted for his worship ; and he was represented as the typical ascetic. Vishnu in 12. BruumsT CHAITYA Excavated in the solid rock at Kiirle, near Foona. In these assembly- halls a small stfipa. introduced to inspire meditation, led to real worship. The resemblance to a Christian church is very striking. Here we have the nave with its apse, and the stupa taking the place of the altar.