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the famous Kevaddha sutra in D.N. (D.B. 1-276), corresponding to D.A. 81a. 2 For authorities on these and the following statements see the list given under objective analysis below. COSMIC ANALYSIS 85 derived, while there were twenty-three or twenty-four factors derived from the four elements. These and all the following subdivisions will be considered at length when we come to deal with the objective analysis of the universe. The whole of the classical metaphysical literature of this school, as well as Buddhaghosa and the Abhi. Sang. (C.P.), follow the sutras in ignoring the doctrine of paramanus or atoms, but in modern times the atomic theory seems to have been adopted to explain the older doctrines. The Sarvastivadins accepted the atomic theory (as we shall see hereafter), and the idea of the four ultimate elements from which are derived eleven fundamental material factors, a somewhat more systematic list than that of the Sthaviravadins. The Yogacarins, being idealists, thought that all matter is but the creation of the mind. Nevertheless, from the relative point of view, they followed the Sarvastivadins very closely and accepted the four elements and the eleven derivatives (though the Yogacarin eleventh factor differs from that of the Sarvastivadin). The early Yogacarin philosophers, such as Asanga and Vasubandhu, likewise accepted the atomic theory, but this was denied by later thinkers such as Dignaga and Dharmapala as being inconsistent with idealism. 2. Vedand, the first of the four immaterial skandhas, is sometimes translated sensation, but careful study of the texts shows that it corresponds more closely to our own term feeling, for, in the first place, sensation in the sense of awareness is not Vedana but Vijnana, and, secondly, the fundamental division of Vedana into pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral, or sometimes into pleasant, unpleasant, joyful, sorrowful, and neutral (the first two physical, the next two mental, the last both), shows that the hedonistic side of Vedana is emphasized. The fact that it is correlated with the sense organs (thereby giving it a six-fold classification) shows that it may be more adequately defined as " sense feeling occasioned by sense impressions ", which is almost 86 MANUAL OF BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY word for word the definition given it by Vasubandhu (A.K. 1-116). 3. Samjna is sometimes rendered " perception " and some times " conception ". That it is not mere sense perception is, I think, clear, when Samjna is compared with Vijnana. The perceptual side seems to be more emphasized by the Pali or Sthaviravadin commentaries, as when the Vibhanga, to give Mrs. Rhys Davids' translation,1 divides Samjna into (1) cognitive assimilation upon the occasion of sense, and (2) cognitive assimilation on the occasion of naming. The Sarvastivadins and the Yogacarins, on the other hand, emphasized the conceptual aspect. Vasubandhu (A.K. 1-116) defines it as " the grasping of the differences of characteristics ", and, again, " Samjna skandha has for its essence the grasping of images, i.e. it seizes hold of the attributes, blue or yellow, long or short, male or female, pleasant or unpleasant, antipathetic and sympathetic, etc." Personally, I favour the term " ideation " as a translation of Samjna, and Mrs. Rhys Davids tells me that this will also cover the Pali use of the term. The correlation of Samjna with the sense organs is also seen by its division into six categories, as in the case of Vedana. 4. Samskara. — Unquestionably, the most difficult term to explain is Samskara, and a large number of different renderings have been given, ranging from Spence Hardy's " conscience ", which is certainly wrong, to Professor Ehys Davids' " confections ", which is perhaps the most correct etymologically, though personally I should prefer " co efficients ". In point of fact, however, Samskara early became associated with Karma, or action, as may be seen by its position in the Pratitya Samutpada. It has thus been rendered into Chinese (f^, to do, to perform), and in the Samyukta Agama it is said " all creatively active Sasrava 1 B.Psy. sect, on Skandhas. COSMIC ANALYSIS 87 samskrta dharmas are called the Samskara-upadana- skandha " (S.A. f. 13). In many of the sutras some attempt seems to have been made to limit Samskara to volition (Cetana — volitional mentation). Thus the Samyukta Agama (op. cit.) says : " The group of six volitions (corresponding to the six sense organs) constitutes Samskara skandha " (also quoted by A.K. 1-lla). The definition of Samskara as volition would have rounded off the Buddhist list of the five skandhas very well, but as psychological analysis continued, and further factors in the mental process were formulated, a place had to be made for them in the classification of the factors of the personality. Here there was a difficulty. The later Buddhists dared not add to the five-fold classification which they believed to have been laid down by the founder, so that the newly postulated factors had to be arranged somewhere inside the five already existing skandhas. The most convenient dumping ground was found to be Samskara, which thus became a weird medley of otherwise unclassified mental factors. Thus Mrs. Rhys Davids (Bud. Psy., 51), speaking of this matter, says : " The constructive aspect (of this skandha) was reserved for ... volition. The other fifty-one factors (of the Pali enumeration) are rather co-efficients of any conscious state than pre eminently active or constructive functionings." Vasubandhu feels that an apology is needed for including this additional material, though his excuse is rather lame. He says (A.K. 1-116) that the reason the Buddha stated that Samskara skandha consists only of the six-fold Cetana is because this factor is the most important, since Samskara means creative activity, and in Cetana this attribute is more predominant than in the other factors. Nevertheless, the other factors must not be excluded, " for if this were done the remaining Caitasikas, and Citta Viprayukta dharmas would not be included in any of the skandhas, and consequently they would be independent of suffering and the cause of 88 MANUAL OF BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY suffering, and hence could not be cut off and could not be known. For, as the Blessed One has said, " If a single thing be not analysed, or remain unknown, I say that it is impossible to attain the end of suffering ..." Consequently, all samskrta activities not included in the other four skandhas are placed inside the Samskara skandha. Samskara thus came to be used as a term denoting all the mental concomitants which are at any time associated with the arising of Vijnana or consciousness. Consequently, since Vedana and Samjna come under this category, they also were enumerated a part of Samskara, so that from the absolute point of view the five categories were reduced to three, viz. : — (1) The Body. (2) Mental properties, or concomitants of consciousness. (3) Consciousness. Nevertheless, respect for tradition prevented the older and clumsier five-fold classification being disregarded, so that we find the later commentaries trying to explain why Vedana and Samjna are included in Samskara and yet also listed as separate skandhas. Vasubandhu has the following remarks on the subject (A.K. 1-166) : " Among the Caitasikas, Vedana and Samjfia are considered separate skandhas because they serve as causes of pugnacity and of the wheel of birth and death, and because of the due order of their functioning. There are two bases of pugnacity. One is the expression of various desires, the other is the expression of various opinions. Vedana and Samjna act respectively as their predominating cause. Owing to the emotions (Vedana) all the desires are made manifest. Owing to erroneous ideation (Samjna) all theories are made manifest. Both birth and death have Vedana and Samjna as their principal causes, since the wheel of birth and death is set rolling owing to man's enslavement to the emotions and his attachment to erroneous theories. For these two reasons and because of the due order of their causal functioning, to be explained COSMIC ANALYSIS 89 hereafter, Vedana and Samjna are considered separate skandhas." A word must be said concerning the subdivision of Samskara.