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Iviii things, by which we do as we do ' ^ — and which is inter- preted to this effect by Buddhaghosa,^ points to the active, self-expressive side of existence. Both as recipient, then, and as agent, the learner of the Dharma had to acquire and maintain a certain attitude with respect to these aspects of the rupa-skandha. The same considerations apply to the next two kinds of r u p a m, with which we may bracket the next after them. The two modes of * intimation ' or self-expression exhaust the active side of life as such, constituting, as one might say, a world of sub-derivative or tertiary form, and calling quite especially for modification by theory and practice (dassanena ca bhavanaya ca). And the element of space, strange as it looks, at first sight, to find it listed just here, was of account for the Buddhist only as a necessary datum or postulate for his sentient and active life. The vacua of the body, as well as its plena, had to be reckoned in with the rupa-skandha ; likewise the space without by which bodies were delimitated, and which, yielding room for movement, afforded us the three dimensions.^ The grounds for excluding space from the four elements and for calling it derived remain in obscurity. In the Maha Eahulovada-Sutta (cited below) it is ranked imme- diately after, and apparently as co-ordinate with, the other four. And it was so ranked, oftener than not, by Indian thought generally. Yet in another Sutta of the same Nikaya — the Maha Hatthipadopama- Sutta — Sariputta ^ Kepublic, v. 477. ^ AsL, p. 119 and jMssim. ^ See below, p. 194, n. 1 ; also M. i. 423. In the former passage space is described as if external to the organism ; in the latter Gotama admonishes his son respecting the internal akaso. On the interesting point put forward by Professor von Schroeder of a connexion between a k a 9 a and the Pytha- gorean oX/ctt?, see Professor Garbe in the Vienna Oriental Journal, xiii., Nro. 4 (1899). The former scholar refers to the ranking of space as a fifth element, as a schicankend uherlieferte Bezeichmmg. It was so for Buddhism. lix describes four elements, leaving out a k a s o . Eliminated for some reason from the Underived, when the Dhamma- sangani was compiled, it was logically necessary to include it under Derived Kupam. That it was so included because it was held to be a mental construction, or a ' pure form of intuition,' is scarcely tenable. And yet the next seven items of derived form are apparently to be accepted rather as concepts or aspects of form than as objective properties or * primary qualities' of it. Be that as it may, all the seven are so many common facts about r u p a m , both as * s a b b a m ' and as skandha. The Three Qualities^ indicated the ideal efficiency for moral ends to which the rupa-skandha, or any form serving such an end, should be brought. The Three Phases in the organic evolution of form and the great fact of Impermanence applied everywhere and always to all form. And as such all had to be borne in mind, all had to co-operate in shaping theory and practice. Concerning, lastly, the a h a r o, or support, of the rupa- skandha, the hygiene and ethics of diet are held worthy of rational discussion in the Sutta Pitaka.^ We have now gone with more or less details into the divisions of rupam in the * sensuous universe,' with a view of seeing how far it coincided with any general philosophical concept in use among ourselves. For me it does not fit well with any, and the vague term *form,' implicated as it is, like ruparn, with 'things we see,' is perhaps the most serviceable. Its inclusion of faculties and abstract notions as integral factors prevent its coinciding with 'matter,' or 'the Extended,' or 'the External World.' If we turn to the list of attributes given in Chapter I. of Book II., rupam appears as pre- eminently the unmoral (as to both cause and effect) and the non-mental. It was ' favourable ' to immoral states, as the chief constituent of a world that had to be mastered ^ Lightness, plasticity, wieldiness, pp. 194, 195. 2 C/., e.g., M. i., Suttas 54, 55, 65, 66, 70. Ix and transcended by moral culture, but the immoral states exploiting it were of the other four skandhas. It included the phenomena of sense, but rather on their physical pre-mental side than as full-fledged facts of con- sciousness. And it was sharply distinguished, as a con- stituent 'collocation' or 'aggregate' (skandha, rasi), in the total aggregate of the individual organism from the three collocations called c e t a s i k a (feelings, perceptions, syntheses), and from that called citt a (intellect, thought, cognition) . The attabhavo, or personality, minus all mental and moral characteristics, is r u p a m . As such it is one with all r u p a m not of its own com- position. It is ' in touch ' with the general impersonal r u p a m, as well as with the mental and moral con- stituents of other personalities by way of their r ii p a m . That this intercommunication was held to be possible on the basis, and in virtue of, this common structure was probably as implicit in the Buddhist doctrine as it was explicit in many of the early Greek philosophers. It is not impossible that some open allusions to 'like being known by like ' may be discovered in the Pitakas as a consciously held and deliberately stated principle or ground of the impressibility of the sentient organism. No such statement occurs in our Manual. But the phrase, recurring in the case of each of the special senses, 'derived from the four Great Phenomena,' may not have been inserted without this implication. Without further evidence, how- ever, I should not be inclined to attach philosophical signi- ficance in this direction to it. But on the one hand we have an interesting hint in the Commentary that such a principle teas held by early Buddhists. ' "Where there is difference of kind (or creature), we read,^ there is no sensory stimulus. According to the Ancients^ "Sensory stimulus is of similar kinds, not of different kinds." ' ^ Asl. 313. Bhuta visese hi sati pasado va na uppajjati. ' Samananam bhutanam hi pasado, na visamananan ti' Porana. Ixi And again : ' The solid, both within and without, becomes the condition of the sense of touch in the laying hold of the object of perception — in discerning the tangible.'^ It is true that Buddhaghosa is discoursing, not on this question, but on what would now be called the specific energy, or specialized functioning, of nerve. Nevertheless, it seems inferable from the quotations that the principle was estab- lished. And we know also how widely accepted (and also contested)^ this same principle — 'H yvco(Ti<^ tou ojjloIqv tcG 6fjuoi(p — was in Greece, from Empedokles to Plato and to Plotinus,^ thinkers, all of them, who were affected, through Pythagorism or elsewise, by the East. The vivid description by Buddhaghosa {cf. below, pp. 173-174) of the presence in the seat of vision of the four elements is very suggestive of Plato's account of sight in the * Timseus,' where the prin- ciple is admitted. Whether as a principle, or merely as an empirical fact, the oneness of man's rupaskandha with the sabbam rupam without was thoroughly admitted, and carefully taught as orthodox doctrine. And with regard to this kinship, I repeat, a certain philosophical attitude, both theoretical and practical, was inculcated as generally binding. That attitude is, in one of the Majjhima discourses,^ led up to and defined as follows : All good states (d h a m m a) what- ever are included in the Four Noble Truths concerning 111.^ Now the First Noble Truth unfolds the nature of 111 : that it lies in using the five skandhas for Grasping.^ And the ^ Ibid., 315. Ajjhattika-bahira pathavi etassa kaya- pasadassa arammanagahane . . . photthabbajanane pac- cayo hoti. ^ Cf. Aristotle's discussion, De An., i. 2, 5. ^ Cf. the passage, Enn. i. 6, 9, reproduced by Gothe : ov yap av ircoiroTe elBev 6(f)6a\/jLO<i tjXlov rfK.LoeLhr)<^ /jltj y6<yev7]fi€vo(;. * M. i. 184, et seq. ^ See below, p. 276. ^ Ibid., p. 323. I have retained the meaning of ' Grasp- ing ' as dictated by Buddhaghosa for the group of the Four Kinds of Grasping. Dr. Neumann renders upadanak- Ixii first of the five is that of rupam. Now rupam com- prises the four Great Phenomena and all their derivatives. And the first of the four is Earth (the solid element).