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Homage to the Blessed One, the Accomplished, the Perfectly Enlightened One. Padarūpasiddhi Beginning of the Text [Ka] Having bowed down with the head to the Victor, who is the radiant light of the pure good Dhamma, who is the Uggandhara mountain of perfect enlightenment, who is the sole sun in the three Buddha-fields; and to the Dhamma and the Saṅgha. [Kha] And having paid homage to the teacher Kaccāyana, relying on Kaccāyana’s commentary and so forth, I shall make this Padarūpasiddhi, which is clear and well-structured, straightforward for the awakening of the ignorant. 1. Sandhi Chapter Here, to show that the attainment of the Buddha’s Dispensation is rooted in skill in letters, and that this should be accomplished, this sentence about the subject matter and purpose is stated. 1. Meaning is known by letters. Whatever verbal meaning there is, whether mundane or supramundane, all of it is known by letters. For when there is a fault in letters, such as lax or aspirated, the meaning becomes difficult to understand. Therefore, skill in letters is very helpful in the words of the Buddha. Here, even words, being a collection of letters, are included in letters. Therefore, one who desires benefit should accomplish skill in letters, attending to the teacher properly with the five acts of rising and so forth. Definition of Terms Here, first, to explain the usage in the science of sounds, the definition of terms is begun. 2. The letters are forty-one, beginning with 'a'. The letters are forty-one, beginning with 'a'. And these, in accordance with the words of the Victor, are the forty-one characters from 'a' to 'ṃ', each called a letter. For example: a, ā, i, ī, u, ū, e, o, ka, kha, ga, gha, ṅa, ca, cha, ja, jha, ña, ṭa, ṭha, ḍa, ḍha, ṇa, ta, tha, da, dha, na, pa, pha, ba, bha, ma, ya, ra, la, va, sa, ha, ḷa, aṃ—these are the letters. They do not perish, hence they are 'letters' (akkharā). Those whose beginning is 'a' are 'ādayo' (beginning with 'a'). This sequence of 'a' and so forth is based on the sequence of places and so forth. For indeed, characters are produced by place, instrument, and effort. Among these, there are six places: throat, palate, crown of the head, teeth, lips, and nose. Among these: 'a' vowel, ka-group, and 'ha' are throat-born. 'i' vowel, ca-group, and 'ya' are palate-born. ṭa-group, 'ra', and 'ḷa' are crown-born. ta-group, 'la', 'sa'. The dental sounds are *ra* and *da*. The labial sounds are *u*, *va*, *pa*, *pha*, *ba*, *bha*, *ma*. The palatal-guttural sound is *e*. The labial-guttural sound is *o*. The labio-dental sound is *va*. The *niggahīta* is produced from the nasal cavity. *ṅa*, *ña*, *ṇa*, *na*, *ma* are produced from their respective places, and also from the nasal cavity. The sound *ha*, when conjoined with the fifth letters and the semi-vowels, is said by those who speak here to be guttural; when unconjoined, it is also guttural. The middle of the tongue is the articulator for palatal sounds, the tip of the tongue for cerebral sounds, the front of the tongue for dental sounds, and for the rest, their own respective places are the articulators. Effort is a specific type of articulation, such as closure. The sound *a* is closed, while the other vowels, and the sounds *sa* and *ha*, are open. The class consonants are touched, and the semi-vowels *ya*, *ra*, *la*, *va* are slightly touched. Thus, among the letters differing in place, articulator, effort, sound, and duration, the vowels are independent, and the others are dependent. In this regard: First, the independent vowels are stated, then the dependent consonants; Then, those of the same class are stated due to their multitude, then in order of place and lightness. And it is said: "The sequence of these, due to the order of the five places, and due to the distinctions of independent and dependent, has been stated." Forty-one, being one more than forty. By this enumeration: The chief teachers declare that texts with more than forty-one letters are not the words of the Buddha. The particle *api* is used to refer to what has been stated below. 3. Among these, the eight vowels end in *o*. Among these letters, from *a* onwards, the eight letters ending in *o* are called vowels. For example: *a, ā, i, ī, u, ū, e, o* – these are the vowels. Those whose end is *o* are *odantā*. The *d* is a sandhi consonant. They are called *sarā* because they flow or move. They are also called *sarā* because they cause consonants to move. "Among these" is understood. 4. The three short vowels have a light measure. Among the eight vowels, the three vowels with a light measure are called short. For example: *a, i, u* – these are the short vowels. Those whose measure or quantity is light are *lahumattā*. Here, the word *māttā* refers to a unit of time, such as the duration of a syllable or the blinking of an eye. By that measure, short vowels have one measure, long vowels have two measures, and consonants have half a measure. The mention of "light" here is also for including the one-and-a-half measure in prosody. haṃ. Short by reason of short time, or short by having a short time. And the taking of short vowels occurs. 5. Others are long. Among the eight vowels, the five vowels other than the short ones, having two mātras, are called long. For example – ā ī ū e o – these are long. The word "other" is for including those with one and a half mātras. Appointed for a long time, or having that as their end, they are long. Sometimes, a single a-sound or o-sound preceded by a conjunction is called short. For example – ettha, seyyo, oṭṭho, sotthi. Why "sometimes"? Maṃ ce tvaṃ nikhaṇaṃ vane. Putto tyāhaṃ mahārāja. 6. Heavy in a group of two. Du is a group of two, in that group of two. When a conjoined letter follows, the preceding short vowel is called heavy. For example – datvā, hitvā, bhutvā. "Heavy" is understood. 7. And a long one. And a long vowel is called heavy. For example – nāvā, nadī, vadhū, dve, tayo. What is not heavy is to be known as "light". 8. The rest are consonants. Excluding the eight vowels, the remaining thirty-three half-mātra letters, from ka to niggahīta, are called consonants. The rest are those other than what has been stated. That by which meaning is expressed are consonants. For example – ka kha ga gha ṅa, ca cha ja jha ña, ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa, ta tha da dha na, pa pha ba bha ma, ya ra lava sa ha ḷa aṃ – these are consonants. The 'a' in 'ka' and so on is for pronunciation. "Consonants" is understood. 9. Classes are five by five up to ma. Among those consonants, the twenty-five consonants from ka to ma are called classes, divided five by five. For example – ka kha ga gha ṅa, ca cha ja jha ña, ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa, ta tha da dha na, pa pha ba bha ma – these are classes. These are referred to as ka-class, ca-class, etc., according to their first letter. Vaggoti means a group. There, "five by five division" or "these have five fives" means pañcapañcaso. "Mantā" means those whose end is ma. 10. Aṃ is niggahīta. The 'a' is for pronunciation, and the word 'iti' here is for illustrating what was just said, aṃ Thus, the dot mentioned after the letter ‘a’ is called niggahīta. It is taken depending on a short vowel, or it is called niggahīta because it is taken by suppressing the organ of speech. By suppressing the organ of speech, with the mouth not fully open, that which is uttered is niggahīta, the dot following a vowel is said to be so. Here, to include those terms of others not mentioned, when there is occasion for their use, he states the definition. 11. Terms of others in usage. And those terms of others, such as ghosa, aghosa, lopa, savaṇṇa, saṃyoga, liṅga, etc., found in other Sanskrit texts, or used by other grammarians, are also applicable here when there is occasion for their use. Terms of others means terms found in other (texts) or used by others, meaning terms of grammarians or those who have studied grammar. Usage means application, deployment. Among them, the first two of the classes, and the letter ‘s’, are aghosa. The third, fourth, and fifth of the classes, and ya, ra, la, va, ha, ḷa, these twenty-one are called ghosa. And here, the second and fourth of the classes are also called dhanita (aspirated), the others are sithila (unaspirated). Destruction is lopa (elision). Short vowels are savaṇṇa (homogeneous) with long vowels and vice versa, which are also called sarūpa (of the same form). Consonants immediately following vowels are saṃyoga (conjunction). A word that is free from root, suffix, and ending, and conveys meaning, is liṅga (stem). A word ending in a case ending is a pada (inflected word). And so on. Thus, the section on definitions. Section on Vowel Sandhi Now, vowel sandhi is explained. Loka aggapuggalo (foremost person in the world), paññā indriyaṃ (faculty of wisdom), tīṇi imāni (these three), no hi etaṃ (not indeed this), bhikkhunī ovādo (admonition for a bhikkhunī), mātu upaṭṭhānaṃ (service to mother), sametu āyasmā (may the venerable one come), abhibhū āyatanaṃ (sphere of mastery), dhanā me atthi (I have wealth), sabbe eva (all indeed), tayo assu dhammā (may there be three qualities), asanto ettha na dissanti (the non-existent are not seen here) —in these instances, where there is a vowel beginning a word, at all places of sandhi, to separate the consonant, he states the definition. 12. Separate the preceding consonant, which is without a vowel and stands below, from the vowel. By ‘sarena’ (from the vowel) is an instrumental case denoting separation, or it is a co-operative instrumental. Without transgressing the preceding consonant accompanied by the vowel to be joined, and making it a consonant without a vowel standing below, one should separate it from the vowel. This means the consonant should be separated from the vowel. And here, by the power of the word ‘assaram’ (without a vowel), ‘byañjana’ (consonant)... is obtained. 13.