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for one who harms oneself, engaged in practices of self-mortification like naked asceticism, self-heating, self-torment, for one not eating due to anger, and for one hanging oneself, this is suffering rooted in self-inflicted harm. And that which arises for one experiencing killing, binding, and so forth from others, this is suffering rooted in harm inflicted by others. Thus, for all this suffering, this birth is indeed the basis. 541. Therefore it is said: If a being were not born in hells, the unbearable burning by hot fire, and so forth, where would that suffering find a footing? Thus, the sage here calls birth suffering. Suffering in animal realms, manifold, from whips, goads, blows from sticks, and so forth; how would that exist there without birth? Therefore, birth is suffering. And suffering among hungry ghosts, hunger, thirst... Birth Diverse, Arising from wind and sun; Since for one unborn, It is not there, Therefore, the Sage Declared birth to be suffering. In intense darkness And unbearable cold, The suffering among asuras In the inter-world; That would not be there Nor would there be birth for them, Since this birth Is suffering even from that. And also, like in a cesspool hell, In a mother's womb, A being dwelling long, And then emerging from it; Attains extremely dreadful suffering, This too would not exist, Without birth; Thus, this birth is indeed suffering. What is the use of much talk? Indeed, whatever, anywhere, Any suffering exists here At any time; It does not exist Without birth, Since the Great Seer, First of all, Declared this birth to be suffering. This, then, Is the determination Concerning birth. Description of Old Age 542. "Old age is also suffering" - Here, old age is of two kinds: The characteristic of conditioned things, And the aging of the aggregates Within one existence, Accepted as decay, etc., In a continuum; This is what is intended here. This old age Is characterized by the ripening of the aggregates, Has the function of bringing about death, And manifests as the destruction of youth. It is suffering Because it is a conditioned suffering And because it is the basis of suffering. For whatever bodily and mental suffering arises From many causes such as The loosening of limbs, Distortion of faculties, Disfigurement, Destruction of youth, Decline of strength, Loss of mindfulness and intelligence, And being despised by others, Old age is the basis for that. Therefore, it is said – From the loosening of limbs, From the distortion of faculties; By the destruction of youth, By the decline of strength. From the loss of mindfulness and so on, From one's own children and wives; And from being despised, And from becoming more childish. Whatever suffering a mortal attains, Both bodily and mental; All this is due to old age, Therefore, old age is suffering. This is the determination Concerning old age. Description of Death 543. "Death is also suffering" - Here too, death is of two kinds: The characteristic of conditioned things, Concerning which it is said, "Aging and death are comprised Of two aggregates" (Dhātu. 71). And the cutting off Of the life-faculty's continuum Within one existence, which... It is said by the blind, "There is always fear from death." (Sutta Nipāta 581). That is intended here. Death due to birth, death by violence, death by old age, death by exhaustion of life-span, death by exhaustion of merit— these are also its names. This has the characteristic of passing away, the function of separation, and is manifested as the departure from existence. But it should be understood as suffering because it is the basis of suffering. Therefore it is said – For one who sees the signs of evil, of evil deeds, For one who endures the separation from beloved things, The mental suffering of one who is dying, without distinction. And for all, the cutting of joints and bonds, The bodily suffering that occurs when vital parts are torn apart. Since death is the basis of this unbearable, irremediable suffering, Therefore it is spoken of as suffering. This is the determination concerning death. Exposition of sorrow and so forth. 544. Among sorrow and so forth, sorrow is the mental anguish of one afflicted by the loss of relatives and so on. Although it is essentially mental pain. Even so, it has the characteristic of internal burning, the function of consuming the mind, and is manifested as lamenting. But it is suffering because it is painful suffering and the basis of suffering. Therefore it is said – Sorrow pierces the hearts of beings, like a poisoned arrow; Like a red-hot iron dart, it burns fiercely again. And it brings about the breaking of sickness, old age, and death; Since it is also various suffering, therefore it is called suffering. This is the determination concerning sorrow. Lamentation 545. Lamentation is the verbal wailing of one afflicted by the loss of relatives and so on. It has the characteristic of wailing, the function of recounting good and bad qualities, and is manifested as agitation. But it is suffering because it is conditioned suffering and the basis of suffering. Therefore it is said – When one, struck by the dart of sorrow, laments, With unbearable dryness of throat, lips, and palate, One certainly experiences even greater suffering, Therefore the Blessed One spoke of lamentation as suffering. This is the determination concerning lamentation. Suffering 546. Suffering is bodily pain, it is the affliction of the body. its characteristic, its taste is to cause dejection in the foolish, its manifestation is bodily affliction. But suffering is due to the suffering of pain and because it brings mental suffering. Therefore it is said: “This bodily pain afflicts, and mental suffering even more; Because it generates, therefore, it is called suffering in particular.” This is the determination concerning suffering. Dejection 547. Dejection is mental suffering. Its characteristic is the torment of the mind, its taste is mental distress, its manifestation is mental illness. But suffering is due to the suffering of pain and because it brings bodily suffering. Indeed, those afflicted with mental suffering scatter their hair and weep, beat their breasts, writhe, toss about, fall headlong, draw a knife, eat poison, bind themselves with a rope, enter fire— thus they experience various kinds of suffering. Therefore it is said: “Since it afflicts the mind, and brings about the affliction of the body; Dejection is suffering, therefore it is called dejection.” This is the determination concerning dejection. Despair 548. Despair is just the excessive mental suffering arising from being afflicted by the loss of relatives and so on. Some say it is one phenomenon included in the aggregate of formations. Its characteristic is the burning of the mind, its taste is lamentation, its manifestation is despondency. But it is suffering due to its nature as suffering of formations, due to the burning of the mind, and due to the despondency of the body. Therefore it is said: “From the burning of the mind, and the excessive despondency of the body; The suffering that despair generates, therefore it is called suffering.” This is the determination concerning despair. Here, sorrow is like cooking inside a pot with a low fire. Lamentation is like the overflowing from a pot that is cooking with a fierce fire. Despair should be seen as like the cooking of the remaining overflow inside the pot itself, unable to escape, until it is consumed. Association with the unpleasant 549. Association with the unpleasant is the coming together with beings and formations that are disagreeable. Its characteristic is disagreeable conjunction, its function is to cause mental distress. disagreeable, its manifestation is the state of being unbeneficial. But it is suffering because it is the basis of suffering. Therefore, it is said: “Having seen the disagreeable, suffering first arises in the mind; Then, from the attack born of that, it arises in the body here. “Therefore, by the Great Seer, it is known that the coming together with the disagreeable is called suffering, because it is the basis of both kinds of suffering.” This is the determination regarding association with the disagreeable. Separation from the agreeable 550. Separation from the agreeable means separation from agreeable beings and formations. It is characterized by the loss of desirable things, its function is to produce sorrow, its manifestation is misfortune. But it is suffering because it is the basis of the suffering of sorrow. Therefore, it is said: “From the separation of relatives, wealth, and so on, Fools, overcome by the flavor of sorrow, are tormented; Since that is so, the separation from the agreeable is considered suffering.” This is the determination regarding separation from the agreeable. Not getting what one wants 551. As for “not getting what one wants,” in phrases like “Oh, if only we were not subject to birth!” and so on, the desire for unattainable things, that “not getting what one wants,” is also called suffering. It is characterized by desiring unattainable things, its function is to seek them, its manifestation is their non-attainment. But it is suffering because it is the basis of suffering. Therefore, it is said: “The suffering of frustration that arises in beings here, from not getting what they desire, those very things. “The desire for unattainable things is the cause of that; Therefore, the Conqueror declared not getting what one wants to be suffering.” This is the determination regarding not getting what one wants. The five aggregates of clinging 552. As for “in short, the five aggregates of clinging are suffering,” here: The suffering beginning with birth, which was spoken of here by the Such One; And that which was not spoken of, all of it does not exist without these. Therefore, these aggregates of clinging, in brief, were called suffering