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speak of truths?" (Sn. 891) it means truth of view. In "There is indeed one truth, not a second" (Sn. 890) it means ultimate truth, Nibbāna and the path. In "How many are wholesome among the Four Noble Truths?" (Vibh. 216) it means Noble Truth. And here too, it refers to the Noble Truth. Thus, the determination should be understood from the extraction of meaning. 535. Regarding "neither too few nor too many": Why then are only four Noble Truths stated, neither too few nor too many? Because no other is possible, and none of them can be removed. For indeed, no other can be added to these, nor can even one of these be removed. As it is said: "Here, monks, should an ascetic or brahmin come and say: 'This is not the Noble Truth of suffering; there is another Noble Truth of suffering. I will set aside this Noble Truth of suffering and declare another Noble Truth of suffering' – that is not possible." And as it is said: "Whatever ascetic or brahmin, monks, should say: 'This is not the first Noble Truth of suffering taught by the ascetic Gotama; I will reject this first Noble Truth of suffering and declare another first Noble Truth of suffering' – that is not possible" (Saṃ. Ni. 5.1086). Furthermore, the Blessed One, when teaching about arising, taught it with its cause; and when teaching about cessation, taught it with its means. Thus, because these are the ultimate points of arising, cessation, and their respective causes, only four are stated. Likewise, in terms of what is to be fully understood, abandoned, realized, and developed; in terms of the object of craving, craving itself, the cessation of craving, and the means to the cessation of craving; and in terms of attachment, delight in attachment, the uprooting of attachment, and the means to the uprooting of attachment – in these ways too, only four are stated. Thus, the determination regarding "neither too few nor too many" (is made here). should be understood. 536.By way of desire, this is also the order of teaching. Here, because of its grossness, and its commonality to all beings, it is easily understood, thus the truth of suffering is stated first. To show its cause, immediately after, the truth of origin. To make known that from the cessation of the cause comes the cessation of the fruit, then the truth of cessation. To show the way to its attainment, at the end, the truth of the path. Or, to arouse a sense of urgency in beings who are attached to the taste of worldly happiness, suffering is stated first. To make known that it does not come unmade, nor does it arise from creation by a lord, etc., but rather from this, immediately after, the origin. Then, for those whose minds are agitated, overwhelmed by suffering with its cause, seeking an escape from suffering, to generate reassurance by showing the escape, cessation. Then, for the attainment of cessation, the path that leads to cessation. Thus, in this way, the determination by order should be understood. 537.The determination of birth, etc. Those twelve phenomena in the description of suffering, when the Blessed One, expounding the Noble Truths, said: “Birth is suffering, old age is suffering, death is suffering, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair are suffering, association with the unloved is suffering, separation from the loved is suffering, not getting what one wishes is also suffering, in brief, the five aggregates of clinging are suffering” (Vibh. 190). The three kinds of craving in the description of origin: “This craving which leads to re-becoming, accompanied by delight and lust, delighting in this and that. Namely, craving for sensual pleasures, craving for existence, craving for non-existence” (Vibh. 203). In the description of cessation, Nibbāna is essentially one, thus: “The complete fading away and cessation of that very craving, its relinquishment, giving up, release, non-attachment” (Vibh. 204). In the description of the path, the eight phenomena, thus: “What is the Noble Truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering? It is this Noble Eightfold Path. Namely – right view… …right concentration” (Vibh. 205). Thus, in the description of the four truths, phenomena such as birth, etc., are mentioned. The determination of these birth, etc. Here, the determination should be known. Discourse on the Exposition of Suffering Exposition of Birth To wit, this word 'birth' has many meanings. Thus, it is used in the sense of existence in "one birth, two births" (Dī. Ni. 1.244; Pārā. 12). In the sense of a class in "There is, Visakha, a class of ascetics called Nigaṇṭhas" (A. Ni. 3.71). In the sense of a conditioned characteristic in "Birth is comprised of two aggregates" (Dhātu. 71). In the sense of rebirth-linking in "That first consciousness which arose in the mother's womb, that first cognition which appeared, that is his birth" (Mahāva. 124). In the sense of delivery in "The Bodhisatta is just born, Ananda" (Ma. Ni. 3.207). In the sense of lineage in "Not blamed, not reproached on account of birth" (Dī. Ni. 1.331). In the sense of noble virtue in "Since I, sister, was born with the noble birth" (Ma. Ni. 2.351). 538. So here, for those born from the womb, it should be understood as the aggregates that arise from the moment of conception up to the emergence from the mother's womb. For others, it should be understood as just the rebirth-linking aggregates. This also is a figurative statement. But in the ultimate sense, for beings arising here and there, whatever aggregates appear, their first appearance is called birth. But this (birth) in each existence has the characteristic of first arising, has the function of leading forth, has the manifestation of emerging here from a past existence, or has the manifestation of various forms of suffering. 539. If it is asked, "Why is this suffering?" Because it is the basis for various sufferings. Indeed, there are many sufferings. To wit – the suffering of suffering, the suffering of change, the suffering of conditioned states, hidden suffering, unhidden suffering, figurative suffering, and ultimate suffering. Among these, bodily and mental painful feelings, by their nature as painful feelings and by their name as suffering, are called the suffering of suffering. Pleasant feelings, by their change, because they are a cause for the arising of suffering, are the suffering of change. And neutral feelings, and the remaining conditioned states of the three planes of existence, Due to being afflicted by arising and passing away, it is the suffering of formations. Bodily and mental afflictions like earache, toothache, burning from lust, burning from hatred, are called hidden suffering because they are known by asking, and their cause is not obvious. It is also called unobvious suffering. Afflictions arising from the thirty-two actions (tortures) and so on, are called unhidden suffering because they are known without asking, and their cause is obvious. It is also called obvious suffering. Excluding the suffering of suffering, all the rest, such as birth, etc., mentioned in the analysis of the truth of suffering, are suffering by way of metaphor, being the basis for that suffering. But the suffering of suffering is called direct suffering. Here, birth is that suffering in the lower realms which the Blessed One also declared by way of simile in the Bālapaṇḍita Sutta and others (MN 3.246 ff.), and also the suffering of various kinds, such as that rooted in conception, which arises even in happy destinations, in the human world; it is suffering because it is the basis for that. 540. Here is this suffering rooted in conception and of various kinds – For this being, when born in the mother's womb, is not born in lotuses, water lilies, or white lotuses, but rather, below the stomach, above the intestines, between the abdominal membrane and the spine, in an extremely constricted, intensely dark place, pervaded by the stench of various corpses, with extremely foul-smelling winds blowing, in a most repulsive abdominal region, it is born like a worm among putrid fish, putrid gruel, and excrement. Born there, for ten months, cooked as if in a sealed pot by the heat generated in the mother's womb, steamed like a lump of dough, unable to contract or extend, it experiences extreme suffering. This, then, is the suffering rooted in conception. And when the mother suddenly slips, walks, sits, stands, turns over, and so on, like a lamb in the hands of a drunkard, or a young snake in the hands of a snake charmer, it experiences extreme suffering through being pulled, dragged, shaken, tossed, and so on, and when the mother... When drinking cold water, he experiences intense suffering, like one fallen into a cold hell. When consuming hot gruel, rice, and so forth, like one surrounded by a rain of embers. When consuming salt, sour things, and so forth, like one subjected to the action of caustic substances. This is suffering rooted in the protection of the embryo. And that suffering which arises for the mother with a misplaced embryo, in a place of suffering not fit to be seen even by friends, relatives, and well-wishers, through cutting, tearing, and so forth, this is suffering rooted in the embryo's misfortune. And that suffering which arises for the mother giving birth, as one is turned around by karmic winds, made to enter the extremely terrifying birth canal, like a fall into hell, pulled out through the extremely constricted mouth of the womb, like a great elephant through a hole in a palm tree, and like a hell-being crushed by crushing mountains, this is suffering rooted in birth. And that suffering which arises for the born one, whose tender body is like a fresh wound, at the time of being held, bathed, washed, wiped with cloths, and so forth, like being pierced and torn by needle points and razor blades, this is suffering rooted in coming forth from the mother's womb. And that suffering which arises in subsequent existence,