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seeing in a perverted way, is wrong view. Here, however, the distinction of paths of action is only by nihilistic, non-causal, and non-functional views. The elaboration of these, however, in terms of their constituents and so on, should be understood in the way that appears in various places (Dī. Nī. Aṭṭha. 1.8; Dha. Sa. Aṭṭha. 1, Akusalakammapathakathā; Pārā. Aṭṭha. 2.172). "Even without manifestation" means even without bodily and verbal manifestation, that is, without giving rise to it. Here, covetousness and so on, being conjoined with the consciousness that gives rise to manifestation, are indeed volitional. 58. "Arising from the root of hatred" means arising from the root called hatred, by way of co-nascent and other conditions, or by a consciousness rooted in hatred, not from roots of greed and so on. Even kings, while laughing, order the killing of beings with a mind rooted in hatred. Similarly, in cases of harsh speech and ill-will, it should be understood accordingly. Since the clinging to objects to be clung to in wrong view is indeed preceded by greed, it says, "and wrong view from the root of greed." The remaining four arise from two roots. For one who takes a desired object, or an undesired object, with the intention of protecting oneself, relatives, or friends, his taking what is not given is rooted in greed. For one who takes for the purpose of revenge, it is rooted in hatred. According to the measure of the Nīti text, for kings and brahmins who take another's property for the purpose of punishing the wicked, "All this was given to brahmins by kings, but because of their utter weakness, others enjoy it, and..." thinking, 'Brahmins consume what is trembling,' and so on, and for those who take anything at all by their own perception, and for those who deny the connection of kamma-results, rooted in delusion. Similarly, in the case of false speech and so on, it should be applied appropriately. 63. This, arising in the three kinds of kamma in relation to the six objects, arises by a three-fold rule, thus it is said, "and likewise by way of giving, virtue, and development." Of the ten ways of designation, the two, then the two, and the three, are successively included in these three: giving, etc. The reason for this we shall explain later. Their application to the six objects and the three kamma-doors should be understood according to the method found in the commentaries and so on. 65. That by which one gives is giving, the volition of relinquishment. Similarly in the remaining cases. That which is observed is virtue, it collects bodily and verbal actions, meaning it establishes them correctly; or that which is observed or upheld is virtue, and upholding here means the state of being an आधार (adhiṭṭhāna) for wholesome things. Thus it is said, "established in virtue," and so on. That by which one develops wholesome states, cultivates and increases them, is development. That by which one shows respect, performs proper conduct by way of veneration, is reverence. The state of being engaged in performing various duties is service. The merit that arises in one's own continuum, that by which it is given, is transference of merit. That by which one rejoices in merit is rejoicing in merit. That by which one hears the Dhamma is hearing the Dhamma. That by which one teaches the Dhamma is teaching the Dhamma. Making one's view straight is straightening one's view. Among these, for one whose continuum is accompanied by latent defilements, the volition that arises from the desire to honor and benefit others, through the relinquishment of existing possessions, is called giving. The preliminary and subsequent volitions, arising from the search for objects of giving, and from recollecting what has been given with a joyful mind, are included here. Similarly, in the remaining cases, it should be understood appropriately. For one who undertakes, fulfills, or even without undertaking, possesses five, eight, or ten precepts by way of constant virtue and so on, the bodily For one refraining from misconduct in speech, for one gone forth, for one undertaking restraint in the ordination enclosure, and for one fulfilling the fourfold purity of virtue, the volition that arises is called virtue. In the forty meditation subjects, and in the grounds of aggregates and so on, arisen through preliminary contemplation and investigation, not yet reaching absorption, the volition ending in lineage-change is called development. Also the volition of mastering blameless knowledge and so on is included here. Towards those senior in age and virtue, without expectation of robes and so on, with an unblemished intention, by means of rising to greet, offering a seat, and so on, the volition of showing great respect is called reverence. Towards these same (seniors), and the sick, with the aforementioned intention, the volition of performing various duties is called service. Of the merit arisen in one's own continuum, the volition of wishing for others to share is called giving of merit. Of merit given by others, or even not given, with a mind free from the stain of stinginess, the volition of rejoicing is called rejoicing in merit. Having thus heard this Dhamma, practicing in the manner stated therein, thinking: "I shall partake of special mundane and supramundane qualities, or having become learned, I shall benefit others with Dhamma teachings and so on," thus arisen through wishing for one's own or others' welfare, with an unblemished intention, the volition of listening to beneficial instruction is called listening to Dhamma. Also the volition of listening to blameless knowledge and so on is included here. Without craving for gain, honor, and so on, while paying wise attention, the volition of giving beneficial instruction is called teaching Dhamma. Also the volition of instructing in blameless knowledge and so on is included here. By means of right view arisen in the manner of "There is what is given" and so on, the straightening of view is called straightening of view. If so, for a consciousness arisen dissociated from knowledge, is the state of being a merit-making deed of straightening of view not obtained? No, it is not not obtained, because the preceding and succeeding volitions are also included in those respective merit-making deeds. Although indeed at the time of straightening, the mind is associated with knowledge, the preceding... But in the latter part, even that which is dissociated from knowledge can occur, and thus its being a rectification of view is appropriate; enough with excessive elaboration. But among these ten, the transference of merit and rejoicing in merit are included in giving, because of their nature. For giving is indeed the opposite of envy and stinginess, and so are these. Therefore, because they have the same opposing nature and a single characteristic, they are included in the basis for meritorious action consisting of giving. Reverence, service, and morality are included in the merit consisting of morality, because they are forms of conduct-morality. But the rectification of view, listening to Dhamma, and teaching Dhamma are included in the merit consisting of mental development, because they are practices of wholesome states, so it was said by the Elder Acariya Dhammapāla (Dī. Ni. Ṭī. 3.305). Others, however, say: "When teaching and listening, one sends forth knowledge according to the teaching, penetrating and penetrating the characteristics, one teaches and listens; and these teaching and listening bring about penetration, therefore teaching and listening are included in the merit consisting of mental development." It can also be said that teaching is included in giving, because it is a gift of Dhamma. For thus it was said: "The gift of Dhamma excels all gifts" (Dha. Pa. 354). Likewise, the rectification of view is a regulating characteristic for all everywhere. For whatever in giving and so forth, purified by right view proceeding in the manner of "there is what is given," becomes of great fruit and great benefit. And having done so, in the Dīgha Nikāya commentary (Dī. Ni. Aṭṭha. 3.305; Dha. Sa. Aṭṭha. 156-159, discourse on bases of meritorious action, etc.) it was said: "The rectification of view is a regulating characteristic for all." Thus, by including the others in the three of giving, morality, and mental development, it should be understood that the basis for meritorious action is briefly of three kinds, and so it was shown by the teacher below. 67. Mental action itself, because it does not arise through the body-door and so forth due to the absence of producing intimation. And that rūpāvacara wholesome (action) is mental development, because it does not arise in the manner of giving and so forth. That which has attained absorption, because the preliminary actions are kāmāvacara. By the distinction of jhāna factors, this is the path. Though of many kinds due to differences, it is fivefold due to the difference in jhāna factors that arise by transcending factors. 68. By difference in objects: meaning, by the difference of these four objects: the space revealed by the kasiṇa, the mind whose object is space, the absence of that, and the consciousness whose object is that. 69. Here: meaning, among these four kinds of kamma, which are evident in their positions. Devoid of restlessness: meaning, the eleven kinds of unwholesome kamma devoid of consciousness accompanied by restlessness. What is the reason here that even doubt-accompanied kamma, which is weakest due to lack of determination, draws forth rebirth, but restlessness-accompanied kamma, which is stronger due to being conjoined with determination, does not? Because it lacks the nature of giving rebirth. For this consideration, "strong draws forth, weak does not" applies only to those with the nature of giving rebirth. But for that which has no nature of giving rebirth,