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called birth suffering. Suffering among animals, manifold, arising from whips, goads, blows from sticks; How could that exist there, without birth? Therefore, birth there is suffering. But suffering among ghosts, varied, arising from hunger, thirst, wind, sun; Since for one unborn it does not exist there; Therefore, the sage called birth suffering. And in intense darkness, unbearable cold; The suffering among asuras in the world-interstices; That would not exist there, nor would there be birth; Since this birth is there, it is suffering. And also, like in the hell of excrement, in the mother's womb; A being dwelling for a long time, and then coming out; Obtains extremely dreadful suffering, this too does not exist; Without birth. Therefore, this birth is suffering. What is the use of much talk? Indeed, whatever; Suffering exists here, any suffering, at any time; It does not exist without birth. Therefore, the Great Sage; First of all, called this birth suffering. "Aging is also suffering" – here, aging is of two kinds: the characteristic of conditioned things, and the old age of the aggregates belonging to one existence, accepted as a continuous process of breaking up, etc. The latter is intended here. This aging is suffering because it is a suffering of conditioned things and because it is a basis for suffering. For whatever physical and mental suffering arises due to many causes such as the loosening of limbs and sub-limbs, the distortion of faculties, disfigurement, the destruction of youth, the loss of energy, the fading of mindfulness and wisdom, and being despised by others, aging is the basis for that. Therefore, the ancients said: From the loosening of limbs, from the distortion of faculties; By the destruction of youth, by the impairment of strength. From the fading of mindfulness and so on, from one's children and wives; And from being displeasing, and from becoming more foolish. Whatever suffering a mortal obtains, physical and mental; All of this is due to aging, therefore aging is suffering. . (Visuddhi. 2.542; Vibha. Atth. 192; Mahāni. Atth. 5; Paṭi. Ma. Atth. 1.1.32-33); The phrase "sickness is suffering" does not appear in the Vibhaṅga's exposition of the truth of suffering. Therefore, it is not quoted in the Visuddhimagga's exposition of the truth of suffering either. It is found only in the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta. Thus, the reason for its presence there and absence elsewhere should be investigated. Regarding "death is suffering," here too, death is twofold: that which is characterized by conditioned phenomena, concerning which it is said, "old age and death are comprised of two aggregates" (Dhātu. 71). And the cessation of the continuum of the life faculty pertaining to a single existence, concerning which it is said, "always fear from death" (Su. Ni. 581; Jā. 1.11.88). This is what is intended here. Death conditioned by birth, death by accident, death by exhaustion, death by the end of life-span, death by the exhaustion of merit are also names for it. This should be understood as suffering because it is the basis of suffering. Therefore, the ancients said: "For one who sees the evil signs of evil deeds, for one who is overcome by good fortune, the separation from beloved objects; the mental suffering of one who is dying, without distinction. "And for all, the breaking of joints and bonds, etc., the bodily suffering that arises when the vital parts are being torn apart. "Since death is the basis of this unbearable, unpreventable suffering, it is therefore spoken of as suffering." (Visuddhi. 2.543; Vibha. Atth. 193; Mahāni. Atth. 5; Paṭi. Ma. Atth. 1.1.32-33); And in this place, "sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair are also suffering" appears in the Vibhaṅga's exposition of the truth of suffering, but it is not here. The reason for that should also be sought. Regarding "association with the disliked is suffering," association with the disliked means coming together with unpleasant beings and formations. That too is suffering because it is the basis of suffering. Therefore, the ancients said: "Seeing the disliked, suffering first arises in the mind; that which is born of its approach— Then, as to the body here: “Therefore, by the Great Sage, It is understood that sorrow, Is called suffering in its essence, The meeting with the disliked.” “Separation from the loved is suffering” – here, separation from the loved means being without pleasant beings and formations. This too is suffering in its essence, being the cause of sorrow. Therefore, the ancients said: “From separation from relatives and wealth, Inflicted with the essence of sorrow, Fools are tormented, Therefore, separation from the loved is considered suffering.” “Not getting what one wishes” – here, the wish for unobtainable things, such as “Oh, if only we were not subject to birth!” is called “not getting what one wishes, that too is suffering.” That too is suffering in its essence, being the cause of suffering. Therefore, the ancients said: “For those wishing for this and that, From not obtaining this and that, The suffering of frustration, Arises for beings here. “The wish for unobtainable things, Is the cause of that; Therefore, the Conqueror declared, The not obtaining of what is wished for as suffering.” “In brief, the five aggregates of clinging are suffering” – here, just as fire is to fuel, arrows to a target, gnats and mosquitoes to cattle, reapers to a field, village destroyers to a village, so too birth and so forth, tormenting in various ways, arise only in the five aggregates of clinging, like grass and creepers in the earth, like flowers, fruits, and leaves on trees. And for the aggregates of clinging, birth is the suffering at the beginning, old age is the suffering in the middle, death is the suffering at the end, and for those whose wishes are frustrated, the suffering of frustrated desire is the not obtaining of what is wished for. Thus, when examined in various ways, it is the aggregates of clinging themselves that are suffering. And this, which cannot be fully described even in many eons if each one were to be shown and spoken of, therefore, the Blessed One, compressing all that suffering, like the essence of all ocean water in a single drop of water, into these five aggregates of clinging, said: “In brief, the five aggregates of clinging are suffering.” Therefore, the ancients said: ṇā – Suffering from birth onwards, which was spoken here by the Such-one; And all that which was not spoken, without these, it is not found. Therefore, for this reason, these clinging-aggregates, in brief, Are called suffering by the great sage, the teacher of the end of suffering. Having thus shown the truth of suffering in its nature, now, in order to show the truth of the origin (of suffering), he said, "And this, monks, is the origin of suffering," and so on. There, this word "saṃ-" indicates conjunction, as in "samāgamo" (coming together), "sameta" (met), etc. This "u-" indicates arising, as in "uppannaṃ" (arisen), "udita" (risen), etc. And the word "aya" indicates cause. And this second truth, when there is a combination of remaining conditions, is the cause for the arising of suffering. Because it is the cause for the arising in conjunction with suffering, it is called "dukkhasamudaya" (origin of suffering). "Yāyaṃ taṇhā" means "this craving." "Ponobbhavikā" means "making for renewed existence," which is "punabbhava" (renewed existence) with the elision of the latter part of the compound. "Ponobbhavikā" means "its nature is renewed existence." "Nandīrāgena sahagatā" means "accompanied by delight and lust." This means: "Because of its not abandoning the state of delight and lust through delighting and lusting in all situations, it is accompanied by delight and lust." "Tatratatrābhinandinī" means "delighting here and there," that is, wherever a new existence arises, there it delights. "Seyyathidaṃ" is a particle, and its meaning is "which is that?" Craving is indeed sixfold by way of its distinctions such as craving for forms, etc. By way of its mode of occurrence, it is said to be threefold, such as sensual craving, etc. Indeed, when craving for forms, delighting in a visual object that has come into the range of the eye, proceeds by way of sensual enjoyment, then it is called sensual craving (kāmataṇhā). When that same object proceeds along with the eternalist view, thinking "it is permanent, eternal," then it is called craving for existence (bhavataṇhā). Indeed, lust accompanied by the eternalist view is called "craving for existence." But when that same object proceeds along with the annihilationist view, thinking "it is cut off, it perishes," then it is called craving for non-existence (vibhavataṇhā). Indeed, lust accompanied by the annihilationist view is called "craving for non-existence." desires. This is the way also for craving for sounds and so on. Why is craving alone called the truth of origin here? Because of its nature as a special cause. Ignorance indeed, concealing the danger in existences, and clinging such as views establishing itself here and there, increases craving. Aversion and so on also become causes for kamma. But craving, desiring the diversity of various existences, wombs, destinations, consciousness-stations, abodes of beings, groups of beings, families, possessions, sovereignty, and so on, becoming a strong support for the diversity of kamma and a helper for kamma, determines the diversity of existences and so on. Therefore, because of its nature as a special cause of suffering, even though other causes of suffering such as ignorance, clinging, kamma and so on, and the remaining defilements, unwholesome roots and so on are mentioned in the Suttas and the Abhidhamma, it is to be understood that craving alone is called "the truth of origin." Now, to show the Noble Truth of the cessation of suffering,