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In the beginning, the mission- aries from India naturally took the lead. In the years A.D. 333-416, however, there arose a native Chinese who had a strong influence on future development, This was Hui-yiian (#& 3), born in Shansi in northern China, a remarkable Taoist, who afterwards founded the most pronounced of all Mahayana schools, the **Pure Land’? School. The special dogmas of this school were found in China long before this time; but Hui-yiien put the doctrine of salvation by faith into strong relief by introducing some Taoist ideas and appellations. We shall speak of hig disciples, T‘an-luan, Tao-ch‘o, and Hsan-tao, in a later chapter. [32] , INNER DEVELOPMENT It is remarkable to see how China, the new hopeful mission field for Buddhism, attracted to itself mission- aries from various quarters, from the second century on. There were, for example, the Indian Lokaraksha, and that remarkable figure Anshikao, who seems to have come all the way from Parthia. There is much to indicate that he is identical with Prince Arsaces from that land. We hear, among other things, that he took part in the translation of the sutra about Amitabha into Chinese in the year A.D. 148. This opens the way for many interesting speculations. This man was evidently familiar with the lines of thought which, during that period, were attracting the religious minds of the West — Zoroaster’s strong prophetic teaching, the worship of Mithras, etc.—but he himself had found satisfaction in Mahayana; and the first thing he did when he came over as a missionary into the story-land of China was to translate into Chinese the huge ‘ Amitabha Sutra,’”’ now usually known by the name of ¢¢ Wu-liang-shou Ching” (4 ik 3% #), “The Book of the Eternal in Time.” With these two men, Mahayana first really began its great expansion in China. The well-known Indian monk, Kumarajiva (Chinese: Chiu-mo-lo-shih, #§ HE #£ ft), also exercised a great influence. In a.p. 401 he was brought down as a prisoner from Tibet. Having arrived in China, he threw himself, heart and soul, into the work of transla- tion, and it is almost unbelievable how much work he accomplished. His translation is still used in the monasteries all over China as the clearest and best in existence. [33] TRUTH AND TRADITION IN BUDDHISM _ As we here begin our study of the inner development of Mahayana on Chinese soil, it is natural to look first at the word which has been used to express the name or conception of Buddha. It is very significant that neither a simple translation of the ‘‘ Enlightened One” was found satisfactory, nor was recourse taken to the mere transliterationofthe sound. The word “Buddha” had, at that time, under the spiritualizing influence of Mahayana Buddhism, become more than a mere name for the historic Gotama Buddha. It was used also as an appellation for the many “enlightened ones.” The Chinese word for “‘ Buddha” is “ Fu-t‘o”’ (i BE), which, in sound ag well as in meaning, corresponds fairly well to the Sanskrit word. Ordinarily only the first part of the word is used, the word “fu”? (#), composed of the two characters for “man” (A) and “not” (jf). The deep meaning is evidently to have gone beyond the sphere of human life with its limitations, and entered into the absolute. The Buddhists themselves in China usually explain the “fu” (fi) as “‘chio’”’ (#), to perceive, pointing to the deeper understanding of oneself and the universe. . It is, therefore, a metaphysical conception, which it is certainly quite impossible to express in a completely satisfactory manner in translation. It will not do simply to use the word “god,” for the “gods” (shén, jf) in Mahayana Buddhism is the expression used for the highest category in the circle of trarsmigra- tion, and, therefore, stands lower than “fu.” For he who has become “fu” has passed beyond all (34] INNER DEVELOPMENT mutations and changes, and no longer runs the risk of dropping back into any transmigratory existence. It would, therefore, be better, at least in certain con- nections, to express it by the monotheistic word “God,” written with a capital letter—as, for example, in the often used and inexpressibly deep phrase “ch*éng fu’? (a fb): “‘to be absorbed into the Godhead.”’ On the other hand, however, this word does not contain that idea of majestic personality and absolute- ness which is contained in our Christian conception of God. The worst mistake, however, is to express the word “‘Fu’’ everywhere by the name “ Buddha,” and think of the historical Buddha. As a matter of fact, the historical Buddha withdraws very decidedly into the background in real Mahayana, and, when he is men- tioned, it is often as a new metaphysical figure, clad in the garb of spiritual glory. There is, therefore, no other way than to let the keen sinologues decide, in each case, which translation is nearest the meaning. In the quotations that we give in the following chapters, we shall try conscientiously to follow this rule. It will be of value, perhaps, to mention in this con- nection the fact that, when the first translators began the translation of the Bible into Mongolian, they adopted the name “Fu” as the appellation for God. We said that the historic Buddha, from the very first days in China, was, for the most part, spoken of as the glorified, heavenly Buddha. As such, also, he is introduced in the oldest of the holy writings. He is enthroned in endless light and radiance, together with [35] TRUTH AND TRADITION IN BUDDHISM myriads of other Buddhas and Buddha candidates (bodhisattvas) and the great and holy masters in the ‘‘heaven of the blessed,” and is pictured always as the one who shall explain the “law” (the teaching, or way of salvation) to his mother or one of the troubled and — questioning disciples. In this réle, also, he is spoken of as belonging to the highest Buddha group— Tathagata. This old appellation from the Sanskrit “Tathagata’”’ is designated quite correctly in Chinese by “He who is” or ‘who appears in this manner”? (Ju-lai, #n 2€). It is evident, however, that Mahayana on Chinese soil has deepened its original conceptions, for “Ju-lai” means also the “norm which has appeared.” That the Chinese understood it in this way is proved by the fact that they set down a parallel translation “Chén-ju”’ or the “true norm” (44 40). Nothing in the Sanskrit answering to this has been discovered, ‘‘Chén-ju,”’ therefore, became the designation used for the mysterious latent divine power which lies behind of all existence, and “Ju-lai’”? was the expression used to signify that this divine power “‘had appeared,” was personified, or, if one wishes, incarnated, in the highest Buddha group. That brilliant but often too audacious sinologue, Dr. Timothy Richard, here draws attention to the astonishing similarity in the thought of Isaiah! concerning “ Immanuel,” “God with us.” One thing is certain. This idea of a latent divine power, which lies behind existence, very soon received still clearer expression. This was in connection with the conception of the trinity which entered into 1Isa. 7:14; 8:10. [36] INNER DEVELOPMENT Mahayana in such a remarkable manner during the early days, and which, down to the present time, plays such a tremendous part in the consciousness of Chinese Buddhists. One first finds a theoretical allusion to the trinity in the great book “Hua-yen Ching” (2# kk ®). It says that, as “Chén-ju,” the true norm, develops, this latent power spreads itself in three directions. The first is ‘ti’ (a%), or the body substance, which is the foundation for all things. The body here is, of course, conceived of spiritually. The next is phenomenal appearances, or “hsiang”’ (#4). And the third is activity, or “yung” (fA). Occasionally, these three attributes are designated by the better known names of “fa-shén” (7 4), “pao-shén” (# 4), and “‘hua-shén” ({¢, #), or the personality of the law, the personality of the revealer, and the personality of activity. As can be seen, the first corresponds in many respects to our conception of “God” (Chen-ju), while the two other aspects remind one of the attributes of the Son and the Spirit (Ju-lai). We shall also see later how the roles of the “Revealer” and the “Spirit”? are merged. together.’ This conception of the trinity comes again and again in endless variations in the Chinese Mahayana. This can be seen particularly in the different groups of large Buddha images in the temples. We shall see later how these groups show very clearly the different sides of the “absolute,” and, therefore, how they are set up methodically and intentionally according as it is 10f. “The Awakening of Faith.” [37] sd ae TRUTH AND TRADITION IN BUDDHISM desired to emphasize one aspect or the other of the eternally latent divine power, the everlasting Buddha- source (Yiian-fu, Ji }). With regard to the glorified heavenly Buddha (Gotama Buddha), it is said that, after he had become perfected in the various virtues (wisdom, holiness, mercy, etc.), he entered into the Tathagata group and became “Hsi-fang Ju-lai Fu” (i A 40 AK Hh), or the “Tathagata of the West.” Moreover, it is clearly asserted in the Chinese Mahayana that the number of Buddhas is countless, and that, long before Gotama Buddha came into the world, there were many appearances of the Buddha. Indeed, Gotama himself, according to the legend, was originally a heavenly Buddha who, in merciful love, took upon himself the form of a man in order to teach the children of men the way of redemption. We shall look into this more closely in the chapter “The Buddhist Pantheon in China.