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We therefore find that from a literary standpoint most of these books hold a high place. [206] BUDDHIST LITERATURE IN CHINA In order to set forth the many alien ideas and fine shades of meaning, new expressions had to be created and characters had to be used in a new and specific sense. Not only had Indian sounds to be represented in symbols, but also special modes of thought and shades of meaning had to be expressed. Therefore many of the Buddhist books are difficult reading— and the ordinary well-trained scholar will stumble after reading a few lines, It is necessary to become familiar with the special terminology of the Buddhists before one can get any real benefit from the reading of their scriptures. It is possible to trace the history of the translations of these Sanskrit texts all the way down to the eighth or ninth century of this era, to Amogha one of the last and greatest of the translators. At this time the Mahayana Tripitaka is found to be fairly complete. Later additions come specially under section tsa (#), miscellaneous, consisting of commentaries, disserta- tions, and poems. Not the least numerous are the last mentioned. Great numbers of them were produced during the Yiian and Ming dynasties. If one is to understand Buddhism during those centuries and get an impression of the influence which it exercised, these poems and ritual hymns must be given careful study. Some of them have great beauty and breathe a deep religious feeling. But there is at the same time some- thing extremely monotonous about them and one looks in vain for an author who draws from new wells. The poems are like the classic scriptures, and follow a [207] TRUTH AND TRADITION IN BUDDHISM traditional form. The setting is a great gathering, when Buddha calls together, in a garden or on a mountain or sometimes in the centre of the thirty- three heavens (Tao-li T‘ien, {J #1 XK), the hundred thousand myriads of the ten thousand Buddhas and bodhisattvas. These gather from the whole universe like dust motes in the atmosphere. The whole gathering is lighted by a flash from the hair between Sakyamuni’s eyebrows—and unlimited brilliance and heavenly melody embrace all things. Gods and devils, Buddhas and bodhisattvas, great masters and miserable creatures from all the hells and orders of mutation, meet and stand listening breath- lessly. One of Buddha’s disciples (Ananda, Hsii-p‘u-t‘i, Wéen-shu, or P‘u-hsien, or sometimes the mother of Buddha, Chinese Mo-yeh, Maya) comes forward and asks a question on some abstruse subject. Then the “Enlightened One,” the ‘World-Honoured One” (shih-tsun ft #), gives his explanation in exalted expressions and flowery language. Often a dialogue develops. Again classical portions of the old sutras are quoted and sometimes a whole sutra is woven into the speech. This is one of the reasons why Tripitaka is so excessively voluminous. , The first act closes with a short poem which gives the essence of the instruction. These little poems, have frequently wonderful beauty and depth, as, for example, the following. After a long speech about the feeling of solidarity with all who suffer, this significant verse occurs: [208] mre ness zens : pr ee 4 sen > =. 0 an f . hee “erie ~tt Be ie frost ly : 9 ae ee Sed ¢ o Ce es ah gay Toa Me 5 a> cs ce | meet ix ay bed “ye Lo-wan Téane, Linc-yen Monastery, SHANTUNG zs 4 ee | ere 7 sears : . __ BUDDHIST LITERATURE IN CHINA sltoe wm 4 ‘he Listen, all ye ‘“‘pi-ch‘iu”! and go S a Out into the sorrow-filled world, ’ Preach that all now can attain salvation, Relief, and strength on the way. The fire of mercy Lights all hearts. “bee The law of salvation they must hear, Then the closed doors are opened. 2 ‘Sf Glorious is the law from first to last, so Glorious in the middle parts! Glorious is the wording —and sure. Bringing salvation and happiness. Therefore, ye ‘“‘pi-ch‘iu,” tell in action and words How immeasurably great is the law of God. _ In the next chapter the same truths are varied, new illustrations are introduced, new incarnations of the merciful bodhisattvas are described, till finally the book closes with a short hymn of praise. Large sections are given up to the great vows and solemn oaths which the different Buddhas and _ bo- dhisattvas make concerning the salvation of the whole creation. These sections are frequently introduced with a dramatic description of the appearing of Buddha in light and glory. The sight of him makes such a strong impression on the disciples that they, too, are fired with a holy longing to attain the same _ profound peace and majestic calm and glory (chuang- yen, #£ &%), the same fulness of divine power (shén- t‘ung, i 3%), and the same quiet, strong, and mys- terious activity (wei-miao, {% #>). And the road to 1Sanskrit, bhikshu: Those who have attained to the second step of initiation, [209] TRUTH AND TRADITION IN BUDDHISM this is through the sacrifice of oneself for creation. This idea of inspiration sheds light on the deeper significance of the bodhisattva, being derived from the actual sight of Buddha or bodhisattva. “The Basket of the Law” (Lu, #) This work is of course still more stereotyped than the poems. Here we first have the old law of Hinayana (pratimokshas) with the ten cardinal commandments called the “‘Sha-mi Shih-chieh”’ (WJ if -- 7%) and the two hundred and fifty special ones for the “ pi-ch‘u” (16 it). In connection with these there are long explanations. ‘<The Book of Brahma’s Net” is the book of special Mahayana law (“Fan-wang Ching,” 4 #9 #&). This contains the fifty-eight commandments, ten difficult ones and forty-eight easy ones, which lead up to the highest order of ordination. It was the well-known Kumarajiva who in a.p. 406 translated this book. He himself was deeply affected by the book, for “ Ma- hayana had given him gold. What he had formerly seen in Hinayana was only copper.” The original Sanskrit text which Kumarajiva used has probably disappeared, for the book which now bears this name in the collection moves along different lines of thought. “The Basket of the Essays” (Lun, 3%) The section (“basket”) which shows the greatest variety, both as to text and ideas, is undoubtedly that of the essays. Here much of the well-known Buddhist philosophy is found, especially as it has been developed [210] BUDDHIST LITERATURE IN CHINA in Mahayana, with its infinite hair-splittings. Here are _ found, put together, spiritual analyses of the soul, bold theoretical combinations — glimpses into the depths of spiritual life by the mind of a genius, together with absurd postulates and leaps of thoughts. The purpose is to give a foundation and a standard for genuine spiritual work like meditation, in such a way that one may be able to penetrate behind the forms and out- ward appearances and see “das Ding an sich.” The oldest catalogue which is found in the Buddhist society in China dates from a.p. 520. In this, 2,213 works are mentioned. Of these, only 267 are extant or can be identified with writings now known. The next catalogue was prepared about a.p. 730 and is called “K‘ai-ytian mu-lu”’ (bf 3¢ A %%). It is therefore only relatively correct to say that the Chinese Tripitaka was completed at such and such atime. The fact is that it was at all times kept up to date with the stage of development of any given period. The year A.D, 972 is generally reckoned as the year in which China got her whole collection; for in that year it was printed for the first time. In the more than twelve collections, which have since been pub- lished (at first only copied by hand, but printed with wooden blocks since A.D. 972), many differences are to be found. Harlier fragments have been cut away or completed, some doubtful passages have been removed, the order has been changed so that “Sutra Pitaka”’ (the doctrinal writings) come first and occupy most [211] TRUTH AND TRADITION IN BUDDHISM space—three quarters in fact, of the whole collection— a characteristic feature of Mahayana thinking. The present canonical collection got its definite form under Hung Wu, the founder of the Ming dynasty, about a.p. 1375, the next edition, under Yung Lo, is only slightly different in the number of the Chinese writings, which belong to the fourth section. These important collections bear the names of “The Southern Canon” (printed in Nanking) and “The Northern Canon” (printed in Peking). The last revision under Yung Chéng (# iE) and Ch‘ien Lung (# #) have added fifty-four Chinese works. The total number of writings in the Chinese Canon has now been fixed at 1662. A more modern edition was published in 1913 (the Hardoon edition). In Japan some very beautiful and handy editions have also been published. We may mention the Tokyo and Kyoto editions. Here the colossal collection of writings, printed on strong brown paper in small but clear type, has been reduced to a manageable size so that it can find a place in a private book collection. In this connection we must mention the great service which the learned Buddhist priest, Bunyiu Nanjio, from Hongwanzi in Japan, has rendered to the world by producing, under the auspices of Oxford University, a new modern catalogue of the different sections. ‘This has been rendered more valuable by being supplied with an index of Chinese titles by Dr. K.D. Ross. Some critical remarks have been added to the collection. Thus we read of No. 1657, a sutra [212] BUDDHIST LITERATURE IN CHINA written by the empress Shan-hsiao of the Ming dynasty: “This sutra is doubtful and probably spurious.” And when the expressions are too much opposed to the principles of Buddha, there is added, as for example of No.