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He is called Lochana (Chinese: Lu-shé-na, J 4 #5; or simply Lu-shé, i #). The central figure in this group of three is Sakyamuni Buddha. . It is without doubt owing to Chih-k‘ai’s famous literary school (T‘ien-t‘ai School) that the worship of Vairocana came into favour so early, and was later cultivated as a separate religion. Chih-k‘ai was most interested in the “‘doctrine.”” The fundamental scrip- tures for him was “The Lotus Scripture” (“Fa-hua Ching,” 7: 4 #€). It was not before a.p. 725, however, that this “religion” got its own name. It was called the “Great Sun Religion” after one of the principal writings “'Ta-jih Ching” (% H &), “The Great Sun Scripture” (Sanskrit: ‘‘ Maha Vairocana Sutra’’). This took place just at the time of the great expansion of the Nestorian Church when its name “shining” was first used. There are many things which point to the fact that there was considerable co-operation and connection between these two forms of [106] MASSES FOR THE DEAD teaching. This is also plainly shown in the final form of the name of the Nestorian Church in China: Ching Chiao (% #), the “Shining Religion.” With great forethought the old Nestorians chose the adjective “‘ching”’ (4%) which, analyzed into its simple elements, i and H, means “great and shining” or “ great’? and “sun,” a term which undoubtedly for the people of that time must have led their thoughts to the “Great Sun Religion’’ centering in Vairocana. : On the other hand, however, the Nestorian Church has certainly exercised no small influence in shaping the content of the idea of the “Great Sun” and its religious school. Unmistakable traces of Christian ideas meet one everywhere in this doctrine—the idea of God as the “father of light,’’ of Christ as the great “light of the world’ who by his work of salvation burst the “bonds of death” so that he could himself descend in triumph into the depths of the kingdom of death and proclaim his “law” to the rebellious spirits. It is no wonder that Amogha, the great promoter of masses for the dead, gave himself, life and soul, to the ¢Great Sun Religion,” and that Vairocana came to be not only the shining representative for the light of learning, but also the incarnation of the idea of great compassion, an idea which had taken its most beautiful and richest form in Amitabha. A few sinologues be- lieve, for this reason, that the two forms blended together for a while during the flourishing period of the “Great Sun Religion.” The close connection between the Nestorian Church and the “Great Sun Religion,” appears also in the [107] TRUTH AND TRADITION IN BUDDHISM many common terms for the various “‘servants in the church.”” The “Catholicos” of the Nestorians became *“‘Fa-chu” (# =). Their ““Episcopos’’ became “'Ta- té” (* #4); their monks took the same name as the Buddhist monks “séng”’ (ff); their archdeacon was called “ssti-chu” (3 =), or superintendent of the monastery, etc. Just as these two doctrines had their flowering at about the same time, so also they were companions in times of persecution and decline. It is perhaps no mere chance that the apparent disappearance of the “Great Sun Religion”’ and the**Shining Religion” took place at about the same time. The Vairocana School was merged with the other Buddhist schools, and for many years now it has been difficult to find any traces of its special forms and expressions. Indeed, one must hunt long even in the best monastery libraries before one finds the old “Ta-jih Ching” (% H #&) (“The Great Sun Scripture”). The most learned amongst the monks have a dim idea that the “Great Sun Religion” was one of the names of the now extinct “Mi Chiao”’ (38 &) (the “ mysterious school of religion”). According to the statement of the learned monk Tai-hsii (4¢ jit) most of “The Great Sun Scripture” is to be found in the voluminous “‘Hua-yen Ching” (3% fe #), more particularly in the portion called Yii- chia-shih ti Lun (3 {i fh Hb if), the scripture for the “Mi-tsung ”’ (3% i) or “ Yii-chia-tsung”” (i {im #4), the old secret school in Buddhism (Yoga-caryabhumi-shastra). A careful study of this scripture by able sinologues will have to be made in order to get full light upon the [108] MASSES FOR THE DEAD question of the relationship between the old Mahayana and the Nestorian Church. The consequence of all this was that it became necessary to get another central figure for the machinery of the masses for the dead. Such a figure was found in the great and compassionate bodhisattva Ti-ts‘ang (#8 3%). His Indian name is Kshitigarbha (the treasure-chamber of the world); the meaning of the name in Chinese also corresponds to this. He does not seem to have played any great rédle in Indian Buddhism, but in China, Korea, and Japan he is enormously popular. In the last-mentioned country he bears the name Jizo. A parallel in the religious system of Zoroaster is Srosh. In China the following legend has arisen regarding his life: Ti-ts‘ang was in reality a prince, the son of a king. His surname was Chin (4) (gold) and his given name Ch‘iao-chio (§ #). In the reign of the Emperor Chih Té of the Tang dynasty (A.D. 754) he abandoned the empty life of this world and became a monk. As such he wandered to China. There are two opinions as to where Chin Ch‘iao-chio’s native country was. The Chinese themselves and many foreigners with them think that he came from Siam. In the scriptures and stone tablets preserved in the mountain monasteries at Chiu-hua Shan (Ju 3 II), the name of Chin’s native country is sometimes given as Hsin-lo (#f #£), sometimes as Hsien-lo (38 3). Tf the last-mentioned characters are the original, then there can be no doubt that the supposition [109] TRUTH AND TRADITION IN BUDDHISM mentioned above is the right one, because Hsien-lo is manifestly used for Siam. But so far it has not been conclusively proved that these characters are the original ones. There are, on the other hand, strong _ historical grounds for the assumption that Hsin-lo must be the original. If this is so, then Chin came from Korea. The strongest argument for this assumption is the fact that there reigned just at that time in the little kingdom of Hsin-lo, or Silla, in Korea some kings by the name of Chin. A real kingdom of Siam was first established much later, as is clearly brought out by R. T. Johnston in his “Buddhist China.” When Chin was ascending the Yangtze River by boat and saw the nine wonderfully beautiful mountain peaks near the city of Tat‘ung (Chiu-hua Shan, 7A ¥ ih, the ‘‘Nine-Flower Mountains”) he decided to disem- bark there, having first received from the magistrate of the place “‘as much ground as his prayer-mat could cover.” As he sat himself down there to meditate, people became aware of a holy radiance which seemed to surround the place. Upon this his divinity was established and his existence secured. For seventy- five years he sat upon that spot in deep meditation, and in the seventy-sixth year in the seventh month and the thirtieth day of the month of that year which was called “K‘ai-yiian” (B§ 3¢) he attained to the great enlightenment and passed away. At that time he was ninety-nine years old. Several well-known lay devotees from the neighbouring places came to visit Chin and provided for his needs. [110] MASSES FOR THE DEAD A minister named Min (§§ 2), who was an ardent devotee of Buddhism, heard about this pious recluse and his white dog, who was always by his side. Min greatly longed to see the holy man. Once a year, therefore, when he had one hundred monks with him as guests, he always left one place vacant. At a later meeting between these two, Ti-ts‘ang begged that he might have ‘‘a place for his monk’s cap in China” after death. Min therefore brought it about that the whole mountain region with the nine peaks was given over to Ti-ts‘ang. After death Chin’s body was wonderfully preserved for a long time, and tongues of fire flickered over his grave, making it perfectly clear that the pious recluse was no other than Ti-ts‘ang, who by dying had descended to hades in order to rescue the hungry and miserable spirits. The tomb, over which the famous pagoda was later built, is still shown and the millions of pilgrims who yearly visit the famous mountains, are able, after special preparations, to catch a glimpse of the under- world through a mountain crevice. For it was thither that Ti-ts‘ang, in his boundless pity and love for the lost, went when he disappeared. After the death of Ti-ts‘ang, Min and his son entered the Buddhist society as monks. Their images are often seen set up beside that of Ti-ts‘ang. The figure of the son, Tao-ming (3% i), stands on the left, and the father on the right side, for “the son introduced the father to the learning of Bud- dhism.”’ [111] wy TRUTH AND TRADITION IN BUDDHISM _ As might be expected, many of the most spiritual of the Chinese hymns of supplication have come to centre around Ti-ts‘ang. ‘The wonderfully impressive title “Yu-ming Chiao-chu” (ia #& # =), the “Master of the Kingdom of Death,” referred to his person. The con- ception was that Amitabha, as the great All-Father, he who is the great and true “Saviour from the West,” in his boundless grace and mercy, decided to show his compassion to the lost souls in hell, through the meditation of Ti-ts‘ang. For this reason, there is a trace of Amitabha’s compassionate expression in the image of Ti-ts‘ang. Indeed, one must look far to find another image which comes up to that of Ti-ts‘ang in beauty and grace. Beaming with light and peace, with a countenance which discloses the most incorruptible justice and compassion, his image often stands surrounded by the most grim and horrible devil- hangmen.