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Their joy was indescribable and on the pilgrims’ arrival there was endless feasting and thanksgiving. The emperor declaring that neither silver nor gold could remunerate their benefactors, promised that he would himself write an introduction to the books, telling what Hsiian- chuang had done for his people, the story thus told to be handed down to all ages. With the help of his ‘‘Hanlin” (scholars of the highest degree) he then wrote the famous introduction. The people all rejoiced that the master could now begin to read and explain the scriptures to them. They assembled in the great lecture-room, excited and attentive, but just as he was about to open his lips, the sound of the beating of cherubs’ wings was heard, and the master and his three disciples were carried away in the spirit to the ‘Western Paradise.” [75] ‘TRUTH AND TRADITION IN BUDDHISM The emperor and his people were seized with holy fear. Under the influence of what had happened, they decided that day to found the great association for the rescue of all lost souls in Hades, the “‘Land and Sea _ Association,” also popularly called the “Yi Lan Hui” (si Bel #7). After their return to paradise the master was canonized as the “Buddha of Sweet Incense,”’ Sun Wu-kung as the “Conquering Buddha,” Chu-pa- chieh as the “ Angel of the Golden Altar,’’ and Sha-ho- shang became the “‘Golden Lo-han.” All the hosts of heaven were present at the ceremony, and all sang together the “ Pure Land Song.”’ [76] NES Co <2 we Tue NeEsToRIAN TaBLetT, CH‘UNG-SHEN MONASTERY, SIANFU, SHANSI CHAPTER IV “THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF MASSES FOR THE DEAD” If we were to take up the general subject of masses for the dead a lengthy treatise on the history of religion would have to be written; we therefore content ourselves with treating of masses for the dead ir relation to Buddhism only. In no other religion do masses for the dead play so large a part asin Buddhism. Even in Hinayana there are vague hints and dim intimations that through special forms of oblation one can get into touch with the needy souls in the lower regions, but it was only with the rise of Mahayana that these masses reached that degree of importance which they now hold in the religious life and worship of the East. The ingenious technique and deeply religious foundation of these masses were not immediately brought to perfection. On the contrary, centuries went by before the system was fully developed, and this fuller development seems to have had some connection with the influence of the Nestorian Church.* In order to understand our subject it will first be necessary to give a brief review of the cycles of transmigration and the theory of hell peculiar to Buddhism. We shall observe that in regard to these matters Mahayana has in general taken over the 10f. Professor P. Y. Saeki’s book, “The Nestorian Monument in China.” [77] TRUTH AND TRADITION IN BUDDHISM position which Hinayana held, and which it in turn had taken from the Indian Vedas. In Chinese Buddhism, these things are interpreted in the following manner: In the continuous cycle of birth and death, always renewed by man’s inherent desire to create, there are six great divisions or orders. The cycle is called in Chinese “lun-huei”’ (the wheel, with turns, or returns, the “wheel of life”). The highest order in the cycle is “heaven” and in this the “gods” (shén, jf) collec- tively are resident. This is called “‘t‘ien-tao” (K 3), the heavenly way. It is as the name signifies, a good place, and those who live there are also good. They are “t‘len-jen” (XK A), heavenly men or good spirits. But they are not perfect; that is, they have not reached the ultimate goal of existence, the absolutely sure and safe place from which falling away and backsliding are excluded. To gain this, they must enter completely into Buddhahood, “ch‘éng fu” (i 4), attain the absolute, and be absorbed in God. Then, and only then, have they reached the place where time is not, where all is peaceful and absolutely clear and bright, where all secrets of the universe are comprehended — the state of “chih-kuan” (1 ¥); the resting-place from which one perceives all things. Other words for this final goal are “Ch‘an-ting” (i 22), the fixed state of meditation, or “ Nieh-p‘an” (#2 #), Nirvana. Heaven, therefore, or rather the “heavens” are inhabited by Buddha candidates, “who after a longer or shorter time will attain the absolute” (Nirvana). [78] MASSES FOR THE DEAD Their reason for delay in entering into final Buddha- - hood is usually that they have made a promise to come to the help of the rest of creation, which lies deep down in the lowest orders of the cycle, where the terrors of darkness, sorrow, sin, and perdition torture the souls. He who has gone so far as to become a Buddha candidate or bodhisattva (Chinese: p‘u-t‘i-sa-to, # $é K %, or p‘u-sa, #'§£), has as one of his distinctive characteristics, not only all-seeing wisdom and great peace, but also absolutely boundless (Wu-liang, 4% E) mercy. He has p‘u-t‘i hsin (# #2 w+), a compassionate heart for all who live and suffer—and he does not desire to enter into full blessedness before he knows that all creation is redeemed. Therefore, each of these bo- dhisattvas has his own chosen sphere of activity in those orders of the cycle, deepest down, where creation languishes in endless torment and pain. In the various writings where these merciful Buddhas and bodhisattvas are invoked and worshipped, this ‘‘sworn promise” plays a great part. The Buddhas are entreated, nay even adjured to help, on the basis of the solemn promise of mercy which they have given. Just here we stand before the objective facts in the Buddhist idea of redemption and atonement. Theoretically this interpretation of the highest order of the cycle is quite distinct and clear. In the Chinese form, however, this definition is somewhat obscured by the fact that certain Buddhas are said to dwell in this or that “heaven” for certain periods. Thus it is often said in the Mahayana scriptures that Sakyamuni reveals himself, for example, in the so-called ‘'Tao-li heaven” [79] TRUTH AND TRADITION IN BUDDHISM (Tao-li Tien, {) #1 X), where he proclaims his “law” or gives an interpretation of some obscure point before all the powers of the universe. “Tao-li Ten” is a collective term used for the thirty-three heavens, eight heavens for each of the four points of the com- pass, and one central heaven where Ti-shih (3 ®— Indra) rules in majesty. The process of ascending upwards through all the “heavens” described in detail in the famous sutra **Leng-yen Ching” (thirty-three heavens and twenty- eight subsidiary heavens), is also thought of as an overcoming of the three great spheres or “chieh” (3). The first is the “ Yii-chieh (& 58), the sphere where lust holds sway. The second is “Shé-chieh ” (& #), a better type of life, but one still dependent upon and attracted by the external appearance of things and all that appeals to the senses. In this sphere, there still exists a difference between sexes, consequently matrimony is also included. The third sphere is the **Wu-shé-chieh ” (S€ {_5¢), the state where all that has to do with the “lust of the eye” and the affections has been disposed of, the sphere where the*heavenlyman™ can ascend to the arhat and bodhisattva world, where they “neither marry, nor are given in marriage, but are as the angels of God in heaven.’ The next group is the human order, or “Jen-tao” (A 38). Here men and women journey together in motley variety and yet alike in the one great fact that they have a human existence. Their destiny as human beings—man or woman, rich or poor, stupid or clever, iMastthew 22:30. [80] MASSES FOR THE DEAD beautiful or ugly, happy or unhappy—is determined by ‘acts’? (Karma) done in an earlier existence. Retribu- tion, reward, punishment, take their unalterable, law- abiding course. This decides all social differences and destinies in life. Nothing is stated more clearly in Chinese Buddhism than this doctrine of “ Yin-kuo” (MJ 3), the law of retribution. It comes again and again in the sutras; it is the key-note for the whole doctrine of transmigra- tion, the foundation of the whole complicated system of the Buddhist hell. The best types in this order are those “ who have a good root strongly developed in their hearts,” ‘“‘shan- kén” (32 4%), and who themselves foster its further growth through a dutiful and gentle human life. Such a person can in this life attain not only to the position of an arhat (lo-han, #2 %), a saint, but he can become a bodhisattva (p‘u-sa, # BE) for whom the entrance to the “Western Paradise” stands open when he leaves his tenement of clay. Many, very many, however, spoil their chances by an unholy and sensual life, so on the cessation of this mortal life they are born into one of the lower more evil orders. Next in order comes the demon group, which in Chinese is called O-hsiu-lo-tao, J} W # 34 (i. e., the way of demons). It is a transliteration of the Sanskrit word “Asuras.” The demons are half good, half bad. Just because their nature is thus divided, they are constantly at strife with him who is absolute goodness, holiness, and justice, namely God. It is remarkable that Chinese Buddhism has here taken as the term for [81] TRUTH AND TRADITION IN BUDDHISM the supreme God, the name which corresponds to the Indian Indra: namely, the god Ti-shih (# #). Among the demons the men are ugly and the women beautiful. The chief of the demons, who is also called O-hsiu-lo (Fy t& #2), is thought to dwell in the depths of the sea, where all is gloomy and unpleasant.