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Southward from this, and close to the sea-coast there is a country called Srikshatra 6 (Prome); on the south- east of this is Lankasu (probably Kamalank4)*; on the east of this ' Lava* cannot be identified with certainty, perhaps it is a place in Rajputana or Delhi; Lava represents Rash/ra, according to Lassen. Cf. Bohtlingk-Roth, s.v. * This may be Mahakala, or some word of the like meaning. ®° Tibet is Bod in Tibetan, pronounced like French ‘peu;’ the Chinese for ‘Bod’ is Fan (FR), the Sanskrit Bhofa. Upper Tibet is Teu-peu, hence another name for Tibet in Chinese is Tt-fan, as we have here in T-tsing’s text. Istakhri (circa a. D. 59) speaks of ‘Tobbat,’ see Yule, Glossary of Anglo-Indian Words, s.v. India, p. 332. See Mr. Rockhill, ‘ Tibet,’ J. R.A. S., 1897, p. 5. * Beal thought ‘this mountain’ was a name, and he calls it Sz’ling, see Ind. Ant., July, 1881, p. 197. ° For Srikshatra, see Hinen Thsang (Julien), tom. iii, pp. 82-83, and Beal, Si-yu-ki, vol. ii, p. 200. * Lankasu is, in all probability, Kamalahka of Hiuen Thsang, i.e. Pegu and the Delta of the Irawadi, see Beal, Si-yu-ki, vol. ii, p. 200. There is a country called Lankasu in a Chinese history (see History of the Liang Dynasty (502~557), book 54) which Mr. Groeneveldt doubtfully identified with a part of Java (see 10 A RECORD OF BUDDHIST PRACTICES. is Dva(ra)pati. (Dvaravatt, Ayudhya)}; at the extreme east, Lin-i (Champa)*, The inhabitants of all these countries greatly reverence the Three Jewels (Ratnatraya)3. There are many who hold firmly to the precepts and perform the begging dhita* which constitutes a custom in these countries. Such (persons) exist in the West (India) as I have witnessed, who are indeed different from men of ordinary character, In the Sishala island (Ceylon) all belong to the Aryasthaviranikaya, and the Aryamahasanghikanikaya is rejected. In the islands of the Southern Sea—consisting of more than ten countries—the Milasarvastivadanikaya has been almost universally adopted (lit. ‘there is almost only one’), though occasionally some have devoted themselves to the Sammitinikaya; and recently a few followers of the other two schools have also Been found. Counting from the West there is first of all P‘o-lu-shi (Pulushih) island, and then the * Mo-lo-yu (Malayuj country which is now the country of Sribhoga (in Sumatra), Mo-ho-sin (Mahasin) island, Ho-ling (Kalinga) island (in Java), Tan-tan island (Natuna island), Pem-pen island, -P‘o-li (Bali) island, K‘u-lun island (Pulo Condore), Fo-shih-pu-lo (Bhogapura) island, O-shan island, and Mo-chia- man island °. There are some more small islands which cannot be all mentioned here. Buddhism is embraced in all these. countries, and mostly the * DvA(ra)pati was identified with Old Tangu and Sandoway in Burma by Capt. St. John (see Phoenix, May, 1872), lat. 18° 20’N., long. 94° 20°E, Cf. History of Burma (Triibner’s Oriental Series), see Index, Dwarawati. But this position does not at all agree with I-tsing’s description. Professor Chavannes notes in his Memoirs of I-tsing (p. 203) that Dvdravatt was the Sanskrit name of Ayuthya or Ayudhya, the ancient capital of Siam. This agrees very well with I-tsing’s description, though I do not know the authority for Chavannes’ note. * Champa was a Buddhist country, Buddhism having been introduced from Ceylon, and generally connected with the name of Buddhaghosa according to Dr. Bastian (see Colonel Yule, Marco Polo, chap. v, book ii, p. 250). But this country was afterwards converted to Islam. % Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. ‘ The begging dhdta, one of the thirteen or twelve dhftas, see note below, p. 56, and Childers, s.v. INTRODUCTION. 1 system of the HinayAna (the Smaller Vehicle) is adopted except in Malayu (= Sribhoga), where there are a few who belong to the Maha- yana (the Larger Vehicle). Some of these countries (or islands) are about a hundred Chinese miles round, some many hundred in circuit, or some measure about - a hundred yoganas. Though it is difficult to calculate distance on the great ocean, yet those who are accustomed to travel in merchant ships will know the approximate size of these islands. They were generally known (to Chinese) by the general name of the ‘Country of Kun-lun,’ since (the people of ) K‘u-lun first visited Kochin and Kwang-tung 1}. ' This sentence is not very clear; more literally, ‘ Because, indeed, the Kush, < first came to Chiao-kwang (Kochin and Kwang-tung) all were afterwards called’ he : “Country of Kun-lun.”’ The vagueness of the Chinese sentences puzzles ué. much. Professor Chavannes’ rendering may be seen from the following extract : ‘Voici, d’aprés I-tsing lui-méme (Nan-haf..., chap. 1, p. 3 et 4) quelle est Vorigine de ce ndm: ce furent des gens du pays de Kiue-loen (Hei 4a). qui vinrent les premiers dans le Tonkin et le Koang-tong; c’est pourquoi on prit Vhabitude d’appliquer le nom de Kiue-loen ou de Koen-loen (Be $e) ) & toutes les contrées des mers du sud qui étaient alors fort peu connues. Cependant, remarque I-tsing, ce nom a pris ainsi une extension que rien ne justifie; en effet, les gens du pays de Kiue-loen sont noirs et ont les cheveux crépus, tandis que les habitants des grandes-fles des mers du sud (les Malais) ne different guére des Chinois.’ Professor Chavannes further remarks: ‘If we compare the text of the history of the T’ang (chap. ccxxii c) with this passage, we see that in the Fou-nan (Siam) the people are black and go naked, and that the sovereign has the family name of Kou-long + Ba likewise, in the state P’an-p’an (in the peninsula ‘of Malacca) the sovereign has the title of emperor Koen-loen or Kou-long. Thus the country that I-tsing calls Kiue-loen must be Siam and the states of the peninsula of Malacca, where the sovereign calls himself by a name that one can transcribe Koen-loen, Kou-long, or Kiue-loen; the people of this country are black. When their name had been applied by the Chinese to all the people of the southern seas, it happened that the greater part of these people were of the Malay race, not black, and very different from the inhabitants of Siam ; it is there that PS CEI oo, Dae, ORR (ORE Ok. See ee eae eR ee CY nT en. Tt Mame eee I2 - A’ RECORD OF BUDDHIST PRACTICES. Except in the case of Kun-lun (Pulo Condore) where the people are woolly-haired (lit. curly-headed) and of black skin, the inhabitants of the (other) islands are similar in appearance to the Chinese; it is their habit to have their legs bare and to wear the Kan-man (a cloth)? These things will be more fully discussed elsewhere in the Description of the Southern Sea®. Setting out from Kwan-chou (a district in Annam)%, right to the south, one will reach Pi-king* after a journey of rather more than half a month on foot, or after only five or six tides _if aboard ship ; and proceeding still southwards one arrives at Champa5, i.e. Lin-i. In this country Buddhists generally belong to the Aryasammiti- nikaya, and there are also a few followers of the Sarvastivadanikaya. Setting out south-westwards, one reaches (on foot) within a month, Poh-nan (Kuo®), formerly called Fu-nan. Of old it was a country, the inhabitants of which lived naked; the people were mostly worshippers of heaven (the gods or devas), and later on, Buddhism flourished there, but a wicked king has now expelled and exterminated them all, and there are no members of the Buddhist Brotherhood at all, while adherents of other religions (or heretics) live intermingled. This region is the * Kan-man is said to be a Sanskrit word; the Chinese is sometimes 4 _ ‘Ho-man. I think Kan-man here represents the Sanskrit Kambala. This, no doubt, refers to the Malayan ‘ Sarongs,’ the native name of a piece of cotton or silk which is fastened round the middle and hangs down to the feet. In. the History of the Lian Dynasty (502-557), book 54, it is said as follows: ‘Men and women (in Siam) all use a broad and long piece of cotton, which they wrap round their body below the loins and called Kan-man (F- Ke) or Tu-man ( fis). See Essays on Indo-China, 2nd series, vol. i, p. 260. ? See below, chap. xi. . ER HH, somewhere near Tongking. s u b= 3 according to J., and ‘Shang-king’ is, no doubt, a misprint; Pi-king is in the north of Champa, and lies in the province of Jih-nan, which is, according to Chinese writers, a kind of colony on the spot or neighbourhood of Hue (see Essays on. Indo-China, 2nd series, vol. i, p. 128 note, and Chavannes, Memoirs, p. 108 Rote). Thus Pi-king may be Turan or somewhere near it. ®. See above, note 2, p. 10. aa . ° Pohgpan is Siam, but also includes a part of Cambodja. INTRODUCTION. 13 south corner of Gambudvipa (India), and is not one of the islands of the sea. In the Eastern Hsia (i.e. China) Buddhists practise mostly according to the Dharmagupta school, but in. many places in Kwan Chung (Shen-si) some belong, from olden times, to the Mahdsanghikanikaya as well as to the above. In olden times in Kiang-nan (south of the Yang Tze-kiang) and Ling-piao (south of the Range, ie. Kwang-tung and Kwang-si) the Sarvastivadanikaya has flourished. When we speak of the Vinaya as being divided into the Dasadhydya (‘Ten Readings’) or into the Xatur- varga (‘Four Classes’), these names are chiefly taken from the divisions . or bundles of the texts adopted by (those) schools. On examining carefully the distinctions between these schools and the differences of , their discipline, we see that they present very many points of -disagree- ment; that which is important in one school is not so in another, and that which is allowed by one is prohibited by another. But priests should follow the customs of their respectivé schools, and not interchange the strict rules of their doctrine for the more lenient teaching of another.