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The purpose of the endur ance of this tapas was still in the main the attainment of miraculous powers ; but moral aims now began to minsle with the older mo- 2. Ax ASRAMA Two Vanaprasthas with their huts and the implements of fire-sacrifice in a hunting scene from the Buddhist Stupa at Sanchi (Maisey, pi. xxiii). See below, p. 61. tives. Hermits seek purity of soul and nearness to God as well as power over gods and men. A special form of teaching, called dranyaka, i. e. belonging to the forest, seems to have been given to young men who were about to enter upon the hermit life. The essential element in this forest teaching was an attempt to spiritualize the sacrifice by means of allegory. This instruction would then form the basis of the hermit's meditation in the forest. 24. The aboriginal tribes were allowed to retain their old gods and their old worship. A practical acknowledge ment of the supremacy of the Brahmans and of Brahmanic ideas was all that was demanded of them. Naturally, in THE BRAHMANAS 33 the intercourse which thus sprang up, the aborigines learned much from the Aryans. On the other hand, a great many aboriginal ideas and many alien religious practices and conceptions found their way into the Vedic faith. The most important change thus produced was the movement of thought towards Transmigration. Snakes, trees, and pools were by this time held in great reverence, and pilgrimage was recognized as a meritorious religious practice. 25. Literature, d-v. The priestly schools had now become great and learned associations, each with a tradition of its own; and so honoured were they that a man was proud to avow himself a member of his school. Every Brahman had to pass through one of them, in order to qualify as a priest. He had to learn by heart the Veda which be longed to his order, and to receive from the lips of his teacher a great deal of detailed information, especially with regard to his work at the altar, the correct pronunciation of the sacred hymns and the meaning of certain acts and stories. Language-study had made considerable progress among them. As time went on, the teaching given in each school took definite form and was handed down with great verbal accuracy from teacher to pupil. The oral tradition of a school was called the Brahmana of that school. From this point onward then each priest studied the Veda of his order and the Brahmana pertaining to it. Then as educa tion advanced, a number of schools arose under each Veda, and differences, great and small, crept into the teaching, until each great school had its own Brahmana, usually called by the traditional name of the school. Thus arose the Brahmanas, the most absurd and uninteresting prose literature in all the world. They are, however, of consider able value historically ; for they enable scholars to form a picture of the life and religion of the times. During this period a fourth Veda, the Afharvavcda, was 34 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY compiled. Although as a collection it is later than the other three, a great deal of the material embodied in it is of early date. It is a more popular work than the other Vedas, reflecting the superstitions of the people, and con sists mostly of charms, which are of two classes, those that bring weal and those that bring woe. It was some time before the Atharvaveda received equal recognition with the three older collections. NOTE.— The text below gives the rule, that A MAN MUST NOT EAT WITH HIS WIFE : ' Hence let him not eat in presence of his wife ; for from him who does not a vigorous son is born ; and she in whose presence he does not eat bears a vigorous son.' £atapatha Brahmana, X. v. 2, 9. THE BRAHMANAS 35 ILLUSTRATIVE READINGS 3. The Origin and the Power of Sacrifice Now Prajapati the lord of creatures, having created living beings, felt himself as it were exhausted. The creatures turned away from him ; the creatures did not abide with him for his joy and food. He thought within him, ' I have exhausted myself, and the object for which I have created has not been accom plished ; my creatures have turned away from me, the creatures have not abode with me for my joy and food.' Prajapati thought within him, ' How can I again strengthen myself ; the creatures might then return to me ; the crea tures might abide with me for my joy and food.' He went on praising and toiling, desirous of creatures. He beheld that set of eleven victims. By offering therewith Prajapati again strengthened himself; the creatures returned to him, his creatures abode for his joy and food. By offer ing he truly became better. Therefore, then, let the sacrificer offer with the set of eleven victims, for thus he truly strengthens himself by offspring and cattle ; the creatures turn unto him, the crea tures abide with him for his joy and food ; he truly becomes better by offering ; therefore, then, let him offer with the set of eleven victims. Satapatha Brdhma>iat III. ix. i, 1-5; S,ti.E. xxvi. 217-18. C 2 36 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY 4. A Charm against Fever 1. Hence, filled with holy strength let Agni, Soma, and Varuna, the Press-stone, and the Altar, And Grass, and glowing Fuel banish Fever. Let hateful things stay at a distance yonder. 2. And thou thyself who makest all men yellow, consum ing them with burning heat like Agni, Thou, Fever ! then be weak and ineffective. Pass hence into the realms below or vanish. 7. Go, Fever, to the Mujavats, or farther, to the Bahlikas. Seek a lascivious Sudra girl and seem to shake her through and through. 8. Go hence and eat thy kinsmen the Mahavrishas and Mujavats. These or those foreign regions we proclaim to Fever for his home. 12. Go Fever, with Consumption, thy brother, and with thy sister, Cough, And with thy nephew Herpes, go away unto that alien folk. 13. Chase Fever whether cold or hot, brought by the summer or the rains, Tertian, intermittent, or autumnal, or continual. 14. We to Gandharis, Mujavats, to Ahgas and to Maga- dhas Hand over Fever as it were a servant and a thing of price. Atharvaveda, V. xxii. 1,2, 7, 8, 12, 13-14; Griffith, i, pp. 224-5. THE BRAHMANAS TABLES 6. The Chief Charanas or Schools with their Brahmanas 37 Charanas A. Rigveda — I. The Aitareyins . . a. The Kaushitakins . B. Samaveda — 1. The Tandins . . . 2. The Chhandogyas . 3. The Talavakaras . . 'Black Yajur — 1. The Taittirlyins 2. The Kathakas 3. The Maitrayamyas White Yajur— i. The Vajasaneyins . D. Atharvaveda — Brahmanas Aitareya Kaushitaki Fanchaviriria \Chhandogya\ Talavakara Taittirlya Satapatha Gopatha NOTE. — The Chhdndogya Brahniaiia has not survived, though we have the Chhdndogya. Upanishad. 7. Relative Age of the Brahmanas DATES UNKNOWN External Events Indian History Literature Elijah, the The Aryans in Prophet, about Kurukshetra THE BRAHMANAS 860 P. c. The Iliad composed. Elaboration of the sacrifice PanchaTiinla, Taittiriya Gradual Compilation Isaiah, the Prophet, The Aryans in the Middle Land Talavakara Kanshitaki Athawavcda 737-700 B.C. Writing intro Aitareya duced Satapatha Rise of the Vanaprasthas Gopatha CHAPTER IV PHILOSOPHIC PERIOD ESSENTIAL HINDUISM Period ends about 480 B.C. 26. History. This period saw the completion of the spread of Aryan influence all over North India, and the still further progress of the organization of the people under the Brahmans. North India was divided into a large number of different states, of which a few were ruled as republics, but the majority as monarchies. Several of them were of considerable size, and had great military power. The chief of them 3. EARLY INDIAN COIN were undoubtedly Magadha, corresponding roughly to Bihar, and Kosala, corresponding roughly to Oudh. The capitals of these states were now large, prosperous, wealthy cities. Industry, trade, and the simple arts were progressing. A rude coinage, consisting NOTE. — The text at the top of the page is one of the earliest utter ances on KARMA AND REBIRTH : — ' In proportion as a man consists now of this or that, just as he acts, just as he behaves, so will he be born.' Brihaddranyaka Upanishad, IV. iv. 5. ESSENTIAL HINDUISM 39 of rectangular pieces of gold, silver, and copper, with a few signs punched on them, was introduced.