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They are — the Santals, the Oraons, the Juangs, and the Kols of Western Bengal ; the Garos, Khasis, and Nagas of Assam ; the Khonds of Orissa ; the Gonds and Bhils of Central India ; and the Todas and other hill tribes in the Madras Presidency. 119. The other class of tribes, however, have been de cidedly Hinduized both socially and religiously, and there- NOTE. — The text at the top of the page refers to THE UNCLEAN CASTES : ' But the dwelling of Chandalas and Svapachas shall be outside the village ; vessels used by them must be thrown away ; and their wealth shall be dogs and donkeys.' Mdnava Dkar/naidstra, x. 51. THE LOWER CLASSES 185 fore they must receive our attention. Being organized in castes, they necessarily vary to a considerable extent in social standing. Certain castes are allowed to visit Brah- manical temples, and thus belong to the central mass of Hindus. These acknowledge the great Hindu gods and 44. SHRINE OF CHENGALAMMA Chengalamma is a village goddess propitiated in times ol trouble. She is somehow identified with the Margosa tree, and the square pattern made with red and yellow powder represents her. The ant-hill is the home of a cobra worshipped by the villagers as a Naga. (Photographed for the author.) conform to Hindu usage as far as they possibly can. Yet even these recognized castes worship many divinities which no Brahman would have anything to do with. 120. There are, on the other hand, vast multitudes of people in both north and south who are regarded as unclean 1 86 HINDUISM AS A SYSTEM who arc in consequence excluded from all Brahmanical temples, and for whom no Brahman will perform any cere mony (sec section 45). High-caste Hindus usually refuse the title Hindu altogether to these races; but they have come so largely under Hindu influence that they cannot be excluded from a study of the religion. They show this 45. SHRINE OF BONTALA GANGAMMA A wayside goddess at whose shrine a weary traveller deposits a rag and a stone, in order that he may lose his fatigue. (Photo graphed for the author.) Hindu influence first of all in their caste organization and in their social usages, which are very largely an imitation of high-caste practice ; secondly, in their belief in Hindu theo logy and superstition, and their desire to bring their village divinities into some sort of relation to the great gods of the Hindu pantheon. THE LOWER CLASSES 187 The lowest of these castes are held in such abhorrence that they are not allowed to live beside the higher castes. They form villages for themselves. 121. Both of these Hinduized groups are inclined to pay worship to the lower divinities of Hinduism, Ganesa and Skanda (also called Karttikeya and Subrahmanya), the sons of Siva, who are believed to be of great service against 46. SHRINE AND STAKE OF POTU-RAJU This deity is usually spoken of as the brother or husband of the village goddess. He is propitiated when danger threatens. The small stone represents the gods. The pointed pillar is really a stake on which the villagers used to impale the animals offered to him as propitiation. (Photograph kindly given by the Rev. \V. T. Elmore.) demons, and above all Kali, the black, bloodthirsty, god dess of the North, who is identified with the wife of Siva. Hanuman, the monkey-god, who is connected with agri culture, is very widely reverenced ; and other divine animals, especially Nandi, Diva's bull, and the divine serpents called Nagas : see fig. 5, p. 60, fig. 10, p. 81, and fig. 44, p. 185. Trees are worshipped all over India, and certain sacred stones. 1 88 HINDUISM AS A SYSTEM 122. But the worship to which the ignorant Indian villager clings with most fervour is just the village divinity. These are found all over India, varying everywhere, yet retaining certain broad similarities everywhere. The points that are most worthy of notice with regard to these much honoured gods are as follows : — (a) Each is a local divinity, attached to the village, and reverenced for that reason. The gods of Hinduism, on the other hand, have usually a much wider vogue. •••.: - 47. SHRINE OF POTU-RAJU (Photographed for the author.) (^) The priests of these divinities are not Brahmans, but men of all castes. (c) The great majority of these divinities are goddesses. In the South almost every one has the word amma, ' mother,' in her name. They are thus known as the Mothers. (d) They are propitiated rather than adored. Visitations of disease, famine, earthquake, &c., are attributed to them ; and special sacrifices and festivals are held to induce them THE LOWER CLASSES 189 to remove the scourge. Animals are usually sacrificed to them on these occasions, fowls, sheep, goats, pigs, and buffaloes. (e) In the South each goddess has usually one, if not more, male attendants, but they are subordinate to her. (/) In the Tamil country in South India a god named lyenar is found in most villages. He is the village watch- 48. SHRINE OF POLERAMMA Polerammn is the protectress of the village boundary. (Photograph kindly given by the Rev. W. T. Elmore.) man. He is supposed to ride round the village by night, driving away demons. Animals are never sacrificed to him. Images of horses are set up at his shrine as dedicatory offerings. (g) The shrines of these divinities are of the rudest description, often only a small piece of land marked off by lines of stones. Frequently there is no symbol of the god at all j often a stained stone is set up ; often a rude image. 1 90 HINDUISM AS A SYSTEM The illustrations in the text are all from the Telugu country. 123. The people suffer greatly from their fear of evil spirits; insomuch that a very large part of their religion consists in efforts to drive them away or to nullify their influence. 49. THE UNCLEANNESS OF THE OUTCASTE This outcaste woman has come to make a purchase, but she dare not approach the merchant, far less enter the shop. From a distance she tells what she wants, lays down the money and then goes away still farther. The merchant brings out tli2 goods, takes the money and retires. The woman then comes and takes away her purchase. (The author owes this photograph to the kindness of Mr. Henri Schaetti.) GOD THAT MADE THE WORLD HATH MADE OF ONE BLOOD ALL NATIONS OF MEN f JTTif CHAPTER XVI FORMATIVE ELEMENTS OF HINDUISM 124. If we are to understand the spirit of Hinduism, it is necessary first of all to learn to sympathize with the im measurable reverence which the Hindu feels for the social organization of his people. He believes that the constitu tion of the family and the organization of society go back to time immemorial ; and modern research has in a measure justified the claim. Ancestor-worship and the patriarchal family date from the days when the Aryan people were still undivided ; and, while caste is a more recent growth, the spirit and principles of caste lie at the basis of all early society. To the Hindu, therefore, these things are sacred in the extreme, priceless in value, so much a part of the life of the people that they must on no account be disturbed. The old-world reverence for what is customary and settled, which was once universal, has been preserved in Hindu life unchanged down to our own days. Then, again, to the Hindu, as to the ancient Aryan, and to all early peoples, what we call moral laws are rather sacred customs which have been traditionally observed from NOTE. — The text at the top of the page gives THE LAW OF CUSTOM: ' Let him walk in that path of holy men which his father and his grand fathers followed ; while he walks in that, he will not suffer harm.' Mdnava Dkarmaidttra, iv. 178. 192 HINDUISM AS A SYSTEM time immemorial than eternal principles of the moral life. These customs are inextricably interwoven with the special forms of family life and social organization which have created the people. To tamper with them is therefore to be guilty at once of sacrilege and of treason against the life of the race. But these customs, though regarded as inviolably sacred and absolutely essential for the well-being of the people which practises them, are not regarded as binding on other peoples : other customs may be necessary for them, and therefore sacred and inviolable to them.