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Another translation, however, that of Paramartha, is noteworthy, since a special Chinese jo sect was founded upon it.6 This highly important treatise 5 differs from the preceding as being a commentary on the Abhidharma Sutra mentioned above, and has no immediate * ! N. 1199. 2 N. 1177. * 3 N.82. •* * N. 1178, frequently quoted hereafter as Ab. Sam. San. M A 5 N. 1183, 1184, 1247. 6 The Jg ^, long since extinct. ho44 ^ D Jci^ oi as t* ft.*/ 34 MANUAL OF BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY connexion with the Yogacara-bhumi. It is therefore cast on quite different lines. 6. Yoga-vibhdga, ascribed also to Maitreya. Of this we have no Chinese translation. It was probably a summary of the larger Yogacara-bhumi. 7. Dasa-bhumika Sdstra.1 — This is a work by Vasubandhu dealing with the ten stages of a Bodhisattva's career, and incidentally including a discussion of much metaphysical matter. Translated by Bodhiruci. This work, like the Mahayana Samparigraha, is of interest, because at one time there existed a special sect in China,2 which was based thereon. 8. Madhydnta Vibhdga, the distinction of the mean, the verses ascribed to Maitreya, and the prose to Asanga. This presents the Yogacarin interpretation of the Madhyamika theory of fSunya. There are two Chinese translations.3 9. Alambana Pratyaya Sdstra. — This is a work dealing with the process and cause of sense impressions. For the meaning of the word Alambana Pratyaya (which may be roughly rendered Occasional Cause in the Cartesian sense), see the discussion in that part of the present work termed Cosmic Dynamics. The original work is ascribed to Dignaga, the great Yogacarin logician. Of this there are two Chinese translations.4 There is also a Chinese translation of a com mentary by Dharmapala, which is even more famous than the original work itself.5 10. Pramdna Samuccaya. — This is a compendium of Buddhist philosophy, with especial reference to logic. Composed by Dignaga, it was translated by Paramartha, but it seems to have been lost. 11. Vidydmdtra Siddhi, or exposition of idealism in twenty verses by Vasubandhu, based on the Lanka vatara Sutra. This is a simpler and more general work than the following. There are three Chinese translations.6 1 N. 1194. 2 j& £f£, likewise long ago extinct. 3 N. 1244, 1245,1248. 4 N. 1172-3. 5 N. 1174. 6 N. 1238--40. INTRODUCTION 35 I 12. Last and most important is the Vidydmdtra Siddhi in thirty verses, also by Vasubandhu.1 This is a more systematic exposition of the whole Yogacarin philosophy in thirty mnemonic verses. Its vast influence in the Buddhist world is due to the fact that it was made the text for numerous commentaries composed by that galaxy of intellects that followed Vasubandhu. Perhaps the most notable commentary was that written by Dharmapala. Hsiian Tsang translated this into Chinese and fused with it selections from the commentaries of nine other great scholars, principally Sthitamati and Dignaga.2 In their work the theology of the earlier treatises is completely transformed into philosophy, and into philosophy of a very high order. The importance of this compendium was early recognized, and it became the standard manual for all students of the Yogacarin system. It is still, moreover, considered necessary for the priests of all other schools to have read through it. However one may disagree with its doctrines, it is difficult to overpraise its clear, concise, and logical form of exposition, differing so much from the slovenliness characteristic of a great deal of Buddhist thought. Unfortunately, the scope of the present work enables us to present only its weakest point, viz. the cosmology inherited from earlier tradition. But it is of interest to note that consistent with its principle of accepting only those things which could be proved by reason or experience, the myths which constitute cosmic synthesis found little or no place in it.3 1 N. 1215. 2 N. 1197, frequently quoted hereafter as V.M.S. 3 Three other famous and important works of the Yogacarins, which are not included in the list of twelve Sastras are : — 1. Panca-skandhaka-sastra, N. 1176, by Vasubandhu, quoted as Pan. Sk. 2. Panca-skandha-vaipulya-sdstra, N. 1175, a commentary on the preceding by Sthitamati, quoted as Par. Sk. Fat. 3. Sata-dharma-vidya-dvara, N. 1213, by Vasubandhu, quoted as S. Dh. These three are short works containing lists of technical terms, with the orthodox interpretations thereof. 36 MANUAL OF BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY PARTICULAR AUTHORITIES SELECTED FOR THE PRESENT WORK It has been thought wise to give a more or less complete list of the principal authorities or sources for each of the three schools in question, as it may serve others in conducting more extended research into Buddhist philosophy, more particularly as Nanjio's Catalogue of the Chinese Tripitaka gives no hint as to the order of arrangement, or the chronological philosophical development. Almost each of the above-mentioned works, however, has slight and, in some cases, important points of differentiation, even from other authorities belonging to the same school. Although a study of these variations is of importance for the understanding of lines of doctrinal evolution, in a book of the present size and scope it is impossible to give due emphasis to every phase, and in consequence the principle adopted has been to choose the final phase of each school, and mention briefly the points of difference from the preceding ideas. The word final needs, perhaps, some explanation. As long as each school continued its corporate existence a certain amount of change or development took place, but within each school a time was reached when the number and order of the categories became fixed. Subsequent development was largely in the nature of reinterpretation of the minor terms and hidden meanings contained in the fixed list of categories. Thus, for example, the early works of each school are by no means in agreement as to the number of the Caitasikas, but after a certain period each school formulated a definite and fixed list (fifty-two for the Sthaviravadins, forty-six for the Sarvastivadins, and fifty- one for the Yogacarins). Thereafter this number was rigidly adhered to. For our present purposes, therefore, one work from each of the three schools has been chosen which may be regarded as a representative authority, and which at the same time may be said to mark this final phase. This has been used as the INTRODUCTION 37 standard of interpretation, though constant reference has been made to the other works mentioned above, and some of their important statements quoted, as may be seen more particularly from the foot-notes appended to each page. For the Sthaviravadin school the standard taken has been the Abhidhammattha Sangaha, and by way of commentary the notes and introduction to the English translation of this work by S. Z. Aung. For the Sarvastivadins the standard taken has been the Abhidharma Kosa, together with the criticisms of Sanghabhadra in his Nyayanusara, and Abhidharma Prakarana. Of great value in this connexion have been the classical Chinese commentaries on the Abhidharma Kosa, all of which are to be found in the Su-tsang-ching (Supple mentary Canon). For the Yogacarin school the standard taken has been the Vidyamatra Siddhi of Dharmapala,1 etc., together with the classical Chinese commentaries, also to be found in the Supplementary Canon.2 Whenever reference has been made to these commentaries or to any works other than these — chiefly miscellaneous Chinese works — mention has been made of them in foot-notes. Two works, however, require special attention. These are two Chinese compendiums dealing with Cosmic Synthesis. Here are gathered together all the important references to cosmographic matters in the various Mahayana and Hinayana Sutras and Sastras in the Chinese Canon. Their names are : — 1- ft BL Sfc ft Fo-tsu-t'ung-chi, N. 1661. This is a general history of Buddhism, but two sections deal with cosmology. 1 More especially have I used a commentary called Pf| f j| fjj^ |§ f|| Wei-shih-lun-chiang-i, not itself in the Supplementary Canon, but which embodies the important ideas of all the classical commentaries. Quoted as Wei-shih. 2 On many cosmological points where V.M.S. is silent I have quoted from Ab. Sam. San., mentioned above. The pagination of references to this and other Yog.