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INTRODUCTION 21 important difference between the Hinayanists, the Madhyamikas, and the Yogacarins is that the first believed in the existence of the external world and its constituent parts, the dharmas ; the second completely denied the existence of the world, and the dharmas ; while the third believed that the world, though an eject of the mind, has yet a relative existence, and that, in fact, the dharma are but stages of the mind's unfolding. There is some doubt as to the exact date of the foundation of the Yogacarin philosophy, but its first patriarchs, Asanga and Vasubandhu,1 cannot have lived before A.D. 359 nor after A.D. 450. Both Asanga and Vasubandhu, who were brothers, commenced their careers as Hinayanists, which may partially explain the synthetic nature of the Yogacarin school. Vasubandhu, the younger brother, in fact rose to great distinction among the Hinayanists, his Abhidharma Kosa and other Hinayana works giving him great renown all over the Buddhist world. His cautious, sane, and philosophical mind probably prejudiced him against the existing forms of Mahayana, which were either wildly superstitious and exaggerated, or else concerned with points of more sophistic nihilism (Madhyamika). Asanga, however, as we may see from his books, though more than a passable philosopher, was possessed of a more religious frame of mind, and consequently went over at an early age to the more devotional and mystic Mahayana, into which, however, he introduced a great number of modifications, and developed the crude idealism found in many of the Sutras composed after the time of Nagarjuna into a definite and systematic school of thought. As yet, however, his system was more theological than philosophical, as may be seen from the introduction of the Maitreya myth. 1 For details concerning the lives of Vasubandhu and Asanga see Takakusu's translation of Paramartha's " Life of Vasubandhu " : T'oung Pao, 1904, and also introduction to Levi's translation of Asanga's Sutralankara. 22 MANUAL OF BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY The system evolved by Asanga eventually won over Vasubandhu, who at once turned his greater philosophical powers to the development of the new school of thought, and though he died not many years after his conversion, it was not before he had laid the foundations of a philosophical movement which represented the highest phase of Indian thought, and which for consistency, acuteness, logical reasoning, and rational procedure, compares favourably with any philosophical system not based upon data provided by experimental science. Many names figure in the galaxy of thinkers produced by the Yogacarins, between the death of Vasubandhu and the downfall of Buddhism in India, but of these Dignaga, Dharmapala, and Dharmakirtti are the most important. Dignaga revolutionized Buddhist logic, and in some ways may be said to be the real founder of Buddhist philosophy as opposed to Buddhist theology, since it was he who first laid down the principle that every doctrine must be proved either by sense-experience or reason without reference to tradition. Dharmapala carried on the work of Dignaga with more especial reference to metaphysics, and his com mentary on Vasubandhu's Vidyamatra Siddhi became, for the Chinese at least, the standard manual of the Yogacarin sect. Dharmakirtti, slightly later, made many notable additions and modifications to the Yogacarin philosophy. Unfortunately, the period of his activity was too late for the Chinese to take much note of him, but the Tibetan Tanjur contains many of his works. 4. SOUKCES OF REFERENCE We have already made reference to many of the important writings of each of the three sects in defining their chronological relationship. It would be well, however, to append a more complete list of the works which serve as authoritative sources of information concerning the cosmological (and other) doctrines of each school. INTRODUCTION 23 1. The Sthaviravddins . — Here the scriptural authorities consist of the Pali versions of the Vinaya, Sutra, and Abhidharma Pitakas. Of these the first may, in the present instance, be entirely neglected. The Sutra Pitaka consists, as is well known, of the following five Nikayas : — (1) Dlglia Nikdya, a collection of 34 long dialogues with no particular order.1 (2) Majjhima Nikdya, or collection of 150 of middle length, likewise in no systematic order. These two are probably older than the next two Nikayas, and embody the older and less formally categorized doctrines. (3) Samyutta Nikdya,2 a collection of a large number of small sutras, in which an attempt has been made to arrange them according to subject, much of the psychological material of early Buddhism, for example, being arranged under the group on Ayatanas. (4) Anguttara Nikdya, likewise a collection of a great number of small sutras, arranged according to numerical categories, a favourite method of classification. These represent the second stage of Buddhist philosophy in which there is no longer a long dialogue leading up to the enunciation of a new truth, but the discussion of the meaning of certain terms arranged in categories. The fifth or Khuddaka Nikaya we can ignore in the present instance. In none of the Pali Nikayas is there a systematic exposition of any aspect of Buddhist cosmology, but many technical terms are employed here and there which serve as the basis for the later developments. As might be expected, the terms relating to cosmic synthesis are nearly all present, as are also many terms relating to cosmic analysis, but almost none relating to cosmic dynamics. 1 Translated into English by Professor and Mrs. R. Davids, Dialogues of the Buddha, 3 vols., quoted hereafter as D.B. 2 The first portion translated by Mrs. K. Davids, Kindred Sayings. Individual English translations of separate sutras and French and German translations, partial or complete, need no mention. 24 MANUAL OF BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY The next stage is represented by the seven works of the Pali Abhidharma Pitaka. These are : (1) Dhamma sangani ; (2) Vibhanga; (3) Dhatu Katha ; (4) Puggala-pafmatti ; (5) Kathavatthu; (6) Yamaka ; (7) Patthana. Of these, especial attention should be paid to : — (1) Kathavatthu (Points of Controversy is the title of the English translation, by Mrs. Khys Davids and Aung), as containing an account of the doctrines concerning which the Pali school differed from the other members of the Hinayana community. In certain cases these refer to cosmological matters. (2) The most systematic treatment of cosmic synthesis is to be found in the Vibhanga (last chapter), though the bulk of the categories in this book, as in the others, refer to cosmic analysis. (3) For us the most important treatment of cosmic analysis, however, is to be found in the Dhamma Sangani, particularly as we have a translation by Mrs. Rhys Davids.1 (4) Pali theories concerning cosmic dynamics are to be found in that vast literary jungle known as the Patthana. Though this is regarded as the most important of the seven works, no one in the West has yet fought his way through the thicket. In spite of the enormous amount of repetition which it contains, a translation of this work will throw a great deal of new light on the evolution of Buddhist ideas. Posterior to the Abhidharma Pitaka proper, but still Indian, or, at least, partially Indian, are such semi-canonical works as the Milinda Panha, Netti, Petakopadesa, etc. Of these the first is well known owing to Professor Rhys Davids' translation, known as The Questions of King Milinda. The next phase of Pali Buddhism, which is in some ways the most important, since it represents the final and complete system of cosmology, is to be found in the works of Buddhaghosa. Out of the vast number of works written by, 1 A Buddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics. INTRODUCTION 25 or at least ascribed to, him, we need mention only the following :• — (1) Visuddhi Magga, the path of purity, an original work, which is, in fact, a very able encyclopaedia of Buddhist doctrine, corresponding to, but inferior to, the Sarvastivadin Abhidharma Kosa by Vasubandhu. The Visuddhi Magga is the standard authority for Neo-Sthaviravadin philosophy. (2) Sumangala Vildsirii, a commentary on the Digha Nikaya, with an introductory survey of all Sutra literature. (3) Attha Sdlim, a commentary on the Dhamma Sangani, with an introductory survey of all Abhidharma literature. Now translated into English by Ting and Mrs. Rhys Davids (The Expositor).