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Hinayana, with its doctrine of the rarity of the Buddhas, divides the universe into three categories : (1) Cakravalas which appear to the Buddhas, but which do not receive his Dharma, and in which a Buddha is never born ; (2) Cakravalas receiving the Dharma of the Buddhas, but in which a Buddha is never born ; (3) Cakravalas in which Supreme Buddhas themselves appear. This division is late and applies only to certain branches of Hinayana, chiefly the southern branches.1 The tendency of Northern Buddhism, especially Mahayana, was to universalize Buddhahood. Perhaps the most important division of the universe into the three regions of Kama or Desire ; Rupa or Form ; and Arupa or Formlessness.2 This classification is common to all forms of Buddhism, and must therefore be considered somewhat more in detail. The Kama dhatus or worlds of desire consist of those realms where the inhabitants still suffer from various passions. Those in the lower regions are still subject to pain ; those in the upper regions enjoy a physical and sensuous pleasure. This realm includes the material worlds, or earths with the various forms of life contained therein, and the six Kama heavens. The Rupa dhatus are those realms in which the lower forms of desire are exterminated, but in which the inhabitants are 1 In Ceylon (cf. M.B.) it is said that the Cakravalas always go in groups of three, arranged as follows 0°o • This doctrine is unknown in the North. 2 A.K. 8-la. 50 MANUAL OF BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY still possessed of figure and shape, and are still susceptible to the finer forms of intellectual desire. This realm consists of sixteen, seventeen, or eighteen Brahma heavens situate above each Kama dhatu. The Arupa dhatus are those realms wherein even figure and body disappear, and only life remains. These realms are generally enumerated as four, in the first three of which there still exists some form of consciousness, while in the fourth there is neither consciousness nor unconsciousness. In addition to these, Mahayana postulates an infinite number of Buddhaksetras or Buddha lands in which the highest followers of Buddhism are reborn. A more detailed examination of these three realms had best be divided in the following way : (1) A description of the cosmic geography of the Buddhists, or a chart of the con figuration of the earth. (2) A table of the various heavens and hells, etc., which are to be found in the bowels of or above the earth. (3) Description of the various beings who are supposed to inhabit these regions. The Earth's Foundation. The basis of each world is a material earth, and since each world and therefore each earth is uniform, the general plan of one earth holds good for all others. All the Sutras and Sastras agree that the earth is in the shape of a cylinder, the visible world being on the flat section on top, while the cylinder proper consists of layers of different kinds of materials. These layers are composed as follows x : — 1. At the very bottom of each earth, and thus supporting is the infinite and thus unmeasurable world of Akasa, space or ether, which at the same time is above, around, and in each of the other spheres. 2. Above this there is a layer of air or wind, solid and immovable to such an extent that it cannot be penetrated 1 A.K. ll-la; N.A. 31-la ; M.V. 133-4a ; F.A. 32-15a ; D.A. 92a; Y.B. 27a ; cf. Ceylon accounts M.B. COSMIC GEOGRAPHY 51 by diamonds. It is 1,600,000 yojanas in depth, but its diameter and circumference cannot be measured. 3. Above this is the layer of water, 800,000 yojanas deep, with a circumference of 3,610,350 yojanas. 4. Above this is a layer of gold, or hard rock, in contra distinction to the soft mould of which the earth proper is composed. It is 320,000 yojanas deep, and has the same circumference as that of water. 5. Finally, there is the layer of earth proper, 80,000 yojanas deep, on top of which are the various mountains, oceans, continents, etc. Its circumference is the same as the preceding two. The earth is supposed to be created, held together, and generally sustained and supported by the aggregate result of the actions of all sentient beings. The manner of its creation and destruction will be described hereafter. Mahdmeru, the Central Mountain.1 In the exact centre of this and all other worlds is situate a huge mountain, which is the navel of the earth, and con cerning which many legends have arisen. Various supernatural beings are on its sides, on its summit, as well as immediately above it. Its total height above the surface of the central sea which surrounds it is 80,000 yojanas, and below its surface it reaches down to the bottom of the earthly layer (another 80,000 yojanas). Regarding its diameter, there is much difference of opinion.2 All agree that the greatest diameter is at its base (i.e. sea-level) and at its summit, the smallest portion being between these two parts. The maximum diameter is the same as the height, 80,000 yojanas. On the sides are certain excrescences, which are the abode of certain of the deities, such as the four tiers of heavens ruled over by the 1 A.K. ll-2a ; F.L. 32-86 ; Y.B. 2-7a. For Ceylon M.B. 10 ; K.I. 187. 2 For Ceylon M.B. 10. 52 MANUAL OF BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY Catur Maharajikas (the Four Great Kings), or the guardians of the four directions. Each of these rulers has his own especial colour, which he imparts to the territory over which he rules, so that each side of the central mountain has a different hue, as have the seas, rocks, atmosphere, etc., in each direction. By reason of the intermingling of these four primal colours in those parts where they overlap, eight shades are enumerated, viz. : — 1. In the north, Gold. 2. In the north-east, Virgin Gold. 3. In the east, Silver. 4. In the south-east, Pale Blue. 5. In the south, Blue. 6. In the south-west, Purple. 7. In the west, Red. 8. In the north-west, Golden Red. To the Buddhists, the whole of the known world formed but a part of Jambudvlpa, the great southern continent, which accounts for the fact that to us the sky seems blue, but for the people inhabiting other continents in other directions the sky has a different colour. The Seven Rocky Circles. Ranged around Mahameru (at intervals between which are oceans) are seven rocky or mountainous circles, gradually decreasing in altitude and increasing in circumference. As regards altitude, the extent of each mountain under the water is the same (80,000 yojanas).1 The altitude of each mountain above the water decreases by half, and the diameter of each is the same as the extent of its elevation above water. Thus these circles 2 are : — 1. Yugamdhara. — It surrounds Meru on all sides, though separated from it by an ocean 80,000 yojanas wide. Being 1 Here and elsewhere A.K. has 80,000, D.A. has 84,000, as the basis of calculation. Other works vary between the two. I follow A.K. 2 M.Vy. 280. No two accounts give the same list, see comp. chart, K.I. 186; alsoM.B. 12; A.K. ll-2a; M.V. 133-136; Y.B. 2-76. COSMIC GEOGRAPHY 53 half the total height of Mem, its altitude above the water and its diameter is 40,000 yojanas. 2. Isddham, separated from Yugamdhara by a sea 40,000 yojanas wide, has an altitude above the water and a diameter of 20,000 yojanas. 3. Khadiraka is separated from Isadhara by a sea 20,000 yojanas wide, has an altitude and diameter of 10,000 yojanas. 4. Sudarsana is separated from Khadiraka by an ocean 10,000 yojanas wide, has an altitude and diameter of 5,000 yojanas. 5. AsvaJcarna is separated from Sudarsana by a sea 5,000 yojanas wide, has an altitude and diameter of 2,500 yojanas. 6. Vinataka is separated from Asvakarna by a sea 2,500 yojanas wide, has an altitude and diameter of 1,250 yojanas. 7. Nimimdhara, the last of the rocky circles, separated from Vinataka by a sea 1,250 yojanas wide, has an altitude and diameter of 625 yojanas. Stretched around this last rocky circle is the great salt ocean, gradually decreasing in depth from 625 yojanas, near Nimimdhara, to where it is but 1 inch deep. This is the circumference of the earth, and here there is another encircling mountain, this time made of iron, called the Cakravalagala, or Cakravada. This is but a half of the altitude of Nimimdhara, and is therefore 312J yojanas high.