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The param- atman purusa, therefore, though all-pervasive, yet exists in each individual, being untouched by its experiences of joy, sorrow and attachment, as its higher self. It is only the lower self that goes through the experiences and is always under the influence of the gunas. Any attempts that may be made to rise above the sphere of the gunas, above attachments and desires, above pleasures and pains, mean the subordination of the lower self to the pure and deathless higher self. Every atterapt in this direction implies a _ temporary communion (yoga) with the higher self. It has already been pointed out that the Gita recognizes a conflict between the higher and the lower selves and advises us to raise the lower self by the higher self. In all our moral efforts there is always an upward and a downward pull by the higher purusa on the one side, and the gunas on the other; yet the higher purusa does not itself make the pulls. The energy of the downward pull is derived from the gunas and exerted by the lower self. In all these efforts the higher self stands as the unperturbed ideal of equanimity, steadiness, unchange- ableness in good or evil, joys or sorrows. The presence of this superior self is sometimes intuited by self-meditation, sometimes through philosophic knowledge, and sometimes by our moral 1 sanatanas tvam puruso mato me. Gitd, x1. 18. tvam Gdi-devah purusah puranah. Ibid. xt. 38. For purusottama see ibid. VIII. 1, X. 15, XI. 3, XV. 18 and xv. 19. = Ibid. II. 15, II. 21, 11. 60, II. 4, etc. 3 Jbid. xv. 16 and 17. 4 Ibid. xv. 15 and 18. 5 Tbid. xii. 20. XIV] Sdmkhya Philosophy in the Gita 407 efforts to perform our duties without attachment and without desires. Each moral effort to perform our allotted duties without attachment means also a temporary communion (yoga) with the higher self or with God. A true philosophic knowledge, by which all actions are known to be due to the operations of the prakrti and its gunas and which realizes the unattached nature of the true self, the philosophic analysis of action and the relation between God, the higher self, the lower self, and the prakrti, and any devotional realization of the nature of God and dedication of all action to Him, and the experience of the supreme bliss of living in communion with Him, mean a communion with the higher self or God, and are therefore yoga. It is easy to notice here the beginnings of a system of thought which in the hands of other thinkers might well be developed into the traditional school of Samkhya philosophy. It has already been pointed out that the two prakritis naturally suggested the idea of unifying them into the one prakrti of the Samkhya. The higher and the lower purusas, where the latter enjoys and suffers, while the forraer remains unchanged and unperturbed amidst all the experiences of joy and sorrow on the part of the latter, naturally remind one of the Upanisadic simile of the two birds in the same tree, of whom the one eats tasteful fruits while the other remains contented without them?. The Gita does not seem to explain clearly the nature of the exact relation between the higher purusa and the lower purusa. It does not definitely state whether the lower purusa is one or many, or describe its exact ontological states. It is easy to see how any attempt that would aim at harmonizing these two apparently loosely-connected purusas into one self-consistent and intelligible concept might naturally end in the theory of infinite, pure, all-pervasive purusas and make the lower purusa the product of a false and illusory mutual reflection of prakrti and purusa. The Gita uses the word maya in three passages (VII. 14 and 15, XVIII. 61); but it seems to be used there in the sense of an inscrutable power or ignorance, and not in that of illusory or magical creation. The idea that the world or any of the mental or spiritual categories could be merely an illusory appearance seems never to have been . dhydnenatmani pasyanti kecid atmanam atmana anye samkhyena yogena karma-yogena capare. Gita, XIII. 25. 2 Mundaka, 111. 1. 1 and Svetasvatara, 4. 6. 30-2 468 The Philosophy of the Bhagavad-gita [cH. contemplated in the Gita. It is not, therefore, conceivable that the lower, or the ksara, purusa might be mere illusory creation, accepted as a necessary postulate to explain the facts of our undeniable daily experience. But it is difficult to say how this setra-jna purusa can have a separate existence from the para purusa (which is absolutely free from the gunas), as enjoying the gunas of prakrtt, unless the former be somehow regarded as the result of the func- tioning of the latter. Such a view would naturally support a theory that would regard the lower purusa as being only the para purusa as imaged or reflected in the gunas. The para purusa, existing by itself, free from the influence of the gunas, is in its purity. But even without losing its unattached character and its lonely purity it may somehow be imaged in the gunas and play the part of the phenomenal self, the jiva or the lower purusa, enjoying the gunas of prakrti and having the superior purusa as its ultimate ground. It cannot be denied that the Gita theory of purusa is much looser than the later Samkhya theory; but it has the advantage of being more elastic, as it serves better to explain the contact of the lower purusa with the higher and thereby charges the former with the spirit of a higher ideal. The qualities of sattva, rajas and tamas were regarded as the universal characteristics of all kinds of mental tendencies, and all actions were held to be prompted by specific kinds of sattva, rajas or tamas. Mental tendencies were also designated accordingly as sattvika, rajasa or tamasa. Thus religious inclinations (sraddhd@) are also described as being of a threefold nature. Those who are of sattvika nature worship the gods, those who are of rajasa nature worship the yaksas and the raksas and those who are of tamasa nature worship ghosts and demons. Those who, prompted by vanity, desires and attachments, perform violent ascetic penances unauthorized by the scriptures and thereby starve and trouble their body and spirit, are really demoniac in their temperament. Again, sattvika sacrifices are those performed solely out of reverence for the scriptural injunctions and from a pure sense of duty, without any desire or motive for any other kind of worldly or heavenly good. Again, rajasa sacrifices are those which are performed for the realization of some benefits or good results or for the satis- faction of some vanity or pride. Tamasa sacrifices are those which are performed without proper faith, with improper ceremonials, transgressing Vedic injunctions. Again, tapas also is described as XIV] Sdmkhya Philosophy in the Gita 469 being threefold, as of body (Sarira), of speech (vaimaya) and of mind (manasa). Adoration of gods, Brahmins, teachers and wise men, sincerity and purity, sex-continence and non-injury are known as physical or bodily tapas. To speak in a manner that would be truthful, attractive, and conducive to good and would not be harmful in any way, and to study in the regular and proper way are regarded as the tapas of speech (vami-maya tapas). Mental (manasa) tapas consists of sincerity of mind, friendliness of spirit, thoughtfulness and mental control, self-control and purity of mind. The above threefold tapas performed without any attachment for a reward is called sattvika tapas. But tapas performed out of vanity, or for the sake of higher position, respectability in society, or appreciation from people, is ‘called rajasa—such a tapas can lead only to unsteady and transient results. Again, the tapas which is performed for the destruction of others by ignorant self-mortifi- cation is called tamasa tapas. Gifts, again, are called sattvika when they are made to proper persons (holy Brahmins) on auspicious occasions, and in holy places, merely out of sense of duty. Gifts are called rajasa when they are made as a return for the good done to the performer, for gaining future rewards, or made unwillingly. Again, gifts are called tamasa when they are made slightingly, to improper persons, in unholy places, and in ordinary places. Those who desire liberation perform sacrifices and tapas and make gifts without aiming at the attainment of any mundane or heavenly benefits. Knowledge also is regarded as sativika, rajasa and tamasa. Sattvika wisdom consists in looking for unity and diversity and in realizing one unchangeable reality in the apparent diversity of living beings. Rajasa knowledge consists in the scientific appre- hension of things or living beings as diverse in kind, character and number. Tamasa knowledge consists in narrow and untrue beliefs which are satisfied to consider a little thing as the whole and entire truth through sheer dogmatism, and unreasonable delusion or attachment. An action is called sattvika when it is performed without any desire for a reward, without attachment and without aversion. It is called rajasa when it is performed with elaborate endeavours and efforts, out of pride and vanity, for the satis- faction of one’s desires. It is called tamasa when it is undertaken out of ignorance and without proper judgment of one’s own - capacities, and when it leads to waste of energy, harm and injury. An agent (kartr) is called sattvika when he is free from attachment 470 The Philosophy -of the Bhagavad-gita [cH. and vanity and absolutely unruffled in success and failure, per- severing and energetic. Again, an agent is called rajasa if he acts out of motives of self-interest, is impure, is filled with sorrow or joy in failure or success, and injures others.