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Two of the largest known topes are in . Ceylon, one at Abhayagiri, 1100 feet in circumference and 244 feet high; and the other at Jetavana, a few feet higher. The former was erected in.88 B.C., and the latter in 275 A, De CHAP. VII] BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE, &C. 139 From the brief account that has been given, our readers will perceive that both in’ architecture and in sculpture the highest excellence was attained and maintained’ in India before and immediately after the ‘Christian Era. For the first attempts we must look to the rude caves in Orissa and Behar, with the facades now and then ornamented with rade sculpture of animals, Such, for instance, is the Tiger Cave of Orissa, and we must date this class of caves with the first spread of Buddhism in the fourth century B.C. A great advance was made in the third century B.C., and perhaps the noblest monuments, both in sculpture and in architecture, were constructed between the third century -BC., and the first century A. D. The-richly sculptured rails of Bharhut and Sanchi belongto 200 B.C.& 100 A.D. and the finest Vihdra that has been yet discovered, that of Karli, belongs also to the first century after Christ. For the succeeding three or four centuries the art maintained its high position, but scarcely any progress was made, for it is doubtful if a tendency towards elaborate ornamentation is true progress. The Ajanta Viharas and the Amardvati rails constructed in the 4th and 5th century A.D. maintained the high position which art had reached in India three or four centuries earlier. Painting, too, of which we cannot discover the first ‘ beginnings, attained or maintained its high excellence in the sth century A.D. After-that century, all arts — , declined with the decline of Buddhism. When’ we 140 BUDDHIST PERIOD. [BOOK iv. meet sculpture again in the Hindu temples of the yth and 8th centuries, the art had lost much of its - higher zsthetic qualities, and “frequently resorts to such expedients as giving dignity to the principal ' personages, by making them double the size of less important-characters, and of distinguishing gods from men by giving them more heads and arms than mortal man can use or understand.” There was no lack however of industry, enterprise or elaborate ornamentation. On the contrary, Orissa and Southern and Western India were covered with temples and sculpture works evincing very. considerable vigour and often producing a rich effect _ by profusejand elaborate ornamentation. But we miss = esthetic beauty, specially in the later Hindu works. ‘The hand of the sculptor was as busy as ever, but the mind of the artist was wanting. CHAPTER IX. ‘SOCIAL MANNERS. CASTE. THE Chinese traveller Houen Tsang makes some: gentral remarks about the people of India and. the way they lived which are valuable to the historian. “ With respect to the ordinary people,” he says, “although they are naturally light-minded, yet they are upright — and honorable. In money matters they are: without craft, and in administering justice they are considerate. They dread the retribution of another state of existence,- and make “light, of the things of the _presentworld. They are not deceitful or treacherous in their conduct, and are faithful to their oaths and promises.” Such has been the opinion of all civilized and candid travellers who -+have visited India from the time of Megasthenes : downwards, who have seen Hindus in their homes and villages, mixed with them in their every- day life, entered into their daily transactions, and ex- amined their dealings and ordinary relations with their- co-villagers and acquaintances. Villagers, says Colonel: Sleeman, adhere habitually to the truth in their Panch- yets, and “I have had before me hundreds of cases in which a man’s property, liberty and life has a upon his-telting-a lie, and ‘he has refused to tell i 1b: ats “ae nN stare narem mane mere 142 BUDDHIST PERIOD. [Rook IV. Our readers will pardon us for this reference to the testimony of a modern traveller and an Englishman ; but judgments on a people’s character are so often formed from the falsehood and chicanery exhibited in law courts, that it is refreshing to turn to the opinion of an Englishman who passed his official life in seeing - and knowing the people in their own homes and villages, and in the midst of their everyday dealings and trans- actions. With regard to the people’s clothing, Houen Tsang Says, that the clothing was not cut or fashioned. “The men wind their garments round their middle, then gather them under the armpits, and let them fall down across the body, hanging to the right,” It would appear from this account that one piece of cloth served much the same purpose and was worn much in the same way as the dhott and chudder are worn in the present day. The women dressed themselves as they do now— The robes of the women fall to the ground ; they completely cover their shoulders, They wear a little knot of hair on their crowns, and let the rest of their hair fall loose.” “On their heads the people wear caps with flower wreaths and jewelled necklets. Their garments are made of Kauseya. Kauseya is the product of the wild silk worm. They have garments also of Kshauma which is a sort of hemp; garments also made of Kam- baila which is woven from fine goat hair; garments also made from Holaii. This stuff is made from the fine CHAP.: IX.] SOCIAL MANNERS, &c. 143 hair of wild animals: it is seldom that this can be woven, and therefore the stuff is very valuable, and it is regarded as fine clothing” The above brief account gives us some idea of the silken, cotton, and woollen fabrics in use in India in the 7th century. o/asi, from the description given, would seem to be shaw/ made of the hair of Kashmir goats. Further on Houen Tsang says that in. North India, where the wind was cold, the people wore close-fitting garments ; that Kshatriyas and Brahmanas were cleanly and wholesome in their dress ; that all the people were very particular in their personal cleantiness, and allow- ed no remissness in this particular,. All washed them- selves before eating. Wooden and stone vessels when used were destroyed; vessels of gold, silver, copper, and iron, after each meal, were rubbed and polished. After eating they cleansed their teeth with a willow stick and washed their hands and mouth. Cleanliness, however, was more observable in the personal habits of the people than in their’ towns. Towns were generally walled and had gatés, but the streets and lanes were tortuous, and the thoroughfares were dirty. Stalls were arranged on both sides of the road with appropriate signs; but butchers, fishers, dancers, executioners, and scavengers had their abodes outside the city. The town walls were mostly: built: of bricks and tiles, and the towers of wood and bamboo, architecture in-stone being extremely rare 144 BUDDHIST PERIOD. [BOOK IV. except for religious edifices and excavations. The houses of the ordinary people were covered,.as in the present day, with “rushes or dry branches or tiles or boards”, and the walls of such houses were covered with lime and mud, “mixed with cow’s dung for purity.” , Houen Tsang gives an account of education in India {which is interesting. He speaks of five Vidyds or ‘branches of learning, viz., Sabddavidyd or the science ‘of words, Si/pasthdnavidyé treating of the arts, Chikitsd- fay or medicine, Hetuvidyd or philosophy, and Adhydt- '‘mavidyd of the mysteries of religion. Houen Tsang also speaks of four Vedas recognized in his time; but Manu recognizes only three and not the Atharva Veda ‘CII, 145; IV, 123; XI, 260 to 265; XII, 112, &c). Houen Tsang further informs us that men completed their education at 30, rewarded and thanked their teach- er, and returned to their worldly duties. # Houen Tsang mentions a great variety of fruits which were produced in India. Among the food- grains, rice and corn were the most plentiful. The most usual food, beside the grains, was milk, butter, cream, soft sugar, sugarcandy, mustard oil, and various: kinds of cakes made.of corn. Fish, mutton, gazelle, and deer were generally eaten fresh, but sometimes salted, but it was forbidden to eat the flesh of the ox, the ass, the elephant, the horse, the pig, the dog, the fox, the wolf, the lion, the monkey, and all the CHAP. IX]. SOCIAL MANNERS, &c. 1 ub hairy kind. With regard to wines, Kshatriyas were fond of the juice of grape and sugarcane. Vaisyas used strong fermented drinks, and the Sramans and Brahmans used a sort of syrup from the grape or sugarcane, but not fermented. We know however from various accounts that drinking was rare among the higher classes and almost unknown among the common people, except among the aboriginal castes. Gold, silver, native copper, white jade, and pearls were the products of the country, and there was also an abundance of rare gems and various kinds of pre- cious stones. Commercial transactions were carried on by barter, goods being exchanged for other goods. Houen Tsang even says that no gold or silver coins © were known. It is probable that none wete generally used for ordinary transactions, . If from the accounts of the Chinese trave er we turn to the Institutes of the Hindu writer known under the mythical name of Manu, we find lists of. various castes and professions into which Hindu society was divided subsequent to the Christian Era, And it is with regret and pain that the historian notes the little respect that was accorded in Hindu society to those who followed different professions and honest, though humble, means of living,—to all who were not ; priests and soldiers..