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The income of the state from the royal demesnes was supplemented, as we have stated before, by taxes. Manu fixes the taxes at " a fiftieth part of the increments on cattle and gold," which corresponds to an income tax of 2 per cent., and " the eight, sixth or twelfth part of the crops " which represents a land revenue much lower than modern assessments. The king might also take a sixth part of trees, meat, butter, earthen vessels, stone ware, &c., and might exact a day's service in each month from artisans, mechanics, and Sfldras living by manual labour. But he should on no account tax Sro- triyas. And lastly, kings are warned against excessive taxation. " Let him not cut up his own root nor the root of others by excessive greed. For by cutting up his own root or theirs, he makes himself or them wretch- ed "(VII, 130 to 139). All these and other rules about adiministration and taxation shew that a fairly advanced system of go- vernment prevailed in India between fifteen hundred and two thousand years ago. And the testimony of Chinese and Greek writers who lived in the country proves that the ideas were not merely worked out by theorists and book-makers, but were carried into prac- tice by kings and their responsible officials. Megas- thenes speaks in the highest terms of the government of Chandragupta ; and Houen Tsang who lived many Digitized by Google 176 BUDDHIST PERIOD. [BOOK IV. years in India, and visited many kingdoms, also speaks highly of Hindu administration, and does not cite one single instance of a people being ground down by taxes or harassed by the arbitrary and oppressive acts of kings, or ruined by internecine wars. On the contrary, the picture which he presents to us is that of a happy and prosperous group of nations, loyal and well-disposed to their kings, enjoying the fruits of a benign aud mild and civilized administration. Agriculture flourished everywhere ; the arts were cultivated ; learning was res- pected and cultivated with great assiduity by Hindus and Buddhists alike ; religion was taught and preached from temples and monasteries without let or hinder- ance ; and the people were left to their own pursuits with- out oppressive interference. These results are a truer indication of a beneficent administration than any rules, however just and humane, which we may find recorded in law-books. Houen Tsang also makes some general remarks about the army which are worth quoting. " The chief soldiers of the country are selected from the bravest of the people, and as the sons follow the profession of their fathers, they soon acquire a knowledge of the art of war. They dwell in garrison around the palace (during peace), but when on an expedition they march in front as an advanced guard. There are four divisions of the army, vis. (i) the infantry, (2) the cavalry, (3) the chariots, (4) the elephants. The elephants are Digitized by Google CHAP. XI.] ADMINISTRATION. 1 77 covered with strong armour, and their tusks are pro- vided with sharp spurs. A leader in a car gives the command, while two attendants on the right and left drive his chariot, which is drawn by four horses abreast. The general of soldiers remains in his chariot ; he is surrounded by a file of guards, who keep close to his chariot wheels. " The cavalry spread themselves in front to resist an attack, and in case of defeat they carry orders hither and thither. The infantry by their quick movements contribute to the defence. These men are chosen for their courage and strength. They carry a long spear and a great shield ; sometimes they hold a sword or sabre, and advance to the front with impetuosity. All their weapons of war are sharp and pointed. Some of them are these, — spears, shields, bows, arrows, swords, sabres, battle-axes, lances, halberds, long javelins, and various kinds of slings. All these they have used for ages." Fortresses were highly esteemed for the purposes of defence, and Manu declares that "one bowman placed on a rampart is a match in battle for one hun- dred foes" (VII, 74). He directs that a king should always build for his safety a fortress, protected by a desert, or water, or trees, or by earthworks, or by armed men ; but he gives his preference to hill forts which are the strongest of all forts. And such forts should be well supplied with weapons, money, grain R. C. D., A. I. — III. 12 Digitized by Google 178 BUDDHIST PERIOD. [BOOK IV. and beasts of burden ; with Brihmans, artisans, engines, fodder, and with water. (VII, 70, 71, 75). The value of such hill forts has repeatedly been proved in the history of modern Indian warfare, and the enemy has often wasted a campaign in a futile attack against a single fort, sufficiently provided with provisions and water, with natural defences and brave men. The laws of war have always been honorable and humane among the Hindus. Chariots and horses and elephants, grain, cattle, and women conquered in battle are the prize of the conqueror ; but he is strictly enjoined not to strike the flying foe, nor one who joins his hands in supplication or sits down and says u I am thine." Similarly, no violence should be used against disarmed or wounded men, or men who were merely looking on without joining in the fight (VII, 91, 92, 93, 96). These rules have been scrupulously observed from the ancient times to the days of modern Rajput warfare, and foreigners have noted peaceful villagers following their daily occupations, and husbandmen ploughing their fields without concern, while hostile armies were contending within sight for the destinies of kingdoms and nations. A great many rules have been laid down about the policy of kings and the conduct of war, some of which are interesting. The king was to consider his imme- diate neighbour his foe and the next king beyond to Digitized by Google CHAP. XI.] ADMINISTRATION. 1 79 be his friend, a rule which finds apt illustration in the Continent of Europe in the present day, — in the policies of France, Germany, and Russia; (VII, 158). The tall men of the Doab formed then, as now, the best soldiers in India, and kings were recommended to engage such men, the Matsyas, the PanchAlas, and the men of Kuruks- hetra and Surasena as soldiers, and to keep them in the van of the battle (VII, 193). The commencement or end of the cold season was said to be the proper season for marching troops, but movements should be com- menced at any time according to the exigencies of the war (VII, 182, 183). We get curious glimpses here and there into the rules which were observed in arranging troops in a march or a battle. In a march the troops were to be arranged like a staff (oblong), or like a waggon (wedge), or like a boar (rhombus), or like a makara (two triangles with the apices joined), or like a pin (long line), or like a Garuda (rhomboid with extended wings). In a battle a small number of soldiers might fight in close order, or the army might be extended in loose ranks; a small number could fight in the needle array, or a large number in the thunderbolt array. (VI I y 187, 191). When the enemy is shut up in a town or fort, the assailant should encamp outside and spoil the enemy's grass food, fuel and water, destroy his tanks, ramparts and ditches, assail him unawares at night, or instigate rebellion among his subjects and followers. (VII, 195 to 197). Digitized 180 BUDDHIST PERIOD. [BOOK IV. And when a king has conquered his enemy he is di- rected to place a relation of the vanquished ruler on the throne, after consulting the wishes of the conquered people, and to respect the local customs and laws of the vanquished (VII, 202, 203). These are just and humane rules worthy of Hindu conquerors. Digitized by Google CHAPTER XII. LAWS. THE Institutes of Manu are divided into twelve books, comprising 2685 couplets. The two longest books (VIII and IX) comprising 756 couplets are devoted to civil and criminal law. Much that we find in these laws is a repetition or a modification of the laws laid down by the ancient SfltrakAras. The king was the fountain of justice in ancient India, and Manu directs that the king should with learned Brihmans and experienced councillors enter the Court of Justice and perform judicial work. Should however the king not do the work himself, he should appoint learned Br&hmans to perform it with the help of three assessors. M Where three Brihmans versed in the Vedas and the learned judge appointed by the king sit down, they call that the Court of Brahman " (VIII, I, 2, 9, 10, 11). The injunctions to speak the truth are as solemn and strict as those provided in any age or country. " Either the court must not be entered, or the truth must be spoken ; a man who either says nothing (*. e., conceals facts) or speaks falsely becomes sinful/' (VIII, 13). Digitized 1 82 BUDDHIST PERIOD. [BOOK IV. " The witnesses being assembled in the court in the presence of the plaintiff and of the defendant, let the judge examine them, kindly exhorting them in the following manner : " 1 What ye know to have been mutually transacted in this matter between the two men before us, declare all that in accordance with the truth ; for ye are wit- nesses in this cause. " 1 A witness who speaks the truth in his evidence gains after death the most excellent regions of bliss and here below unsurpassable fame ; such testimony is revered by Brahman himself. " 1 He who gives false evidence is firmly bound by Varuna's fetters, helpless, during one hundred exist- ences. Let men give true evidence. " * By truthfulness a witness is purified, through truthfulness his merit grows ; truth must therefore be spoken by witnesses of all castes.