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And — for the monks — the Sasanavamsa bears witness again and again to the noble indifference of members of the Order to kingly favour or disfavour. More than one strong protest is recorded, even against the building of a cetiya, by forced labour, and gifts to the Order, wrung from the misery of the people, have been steadfastly refused. As a general rule, the king seems to have had a great and recognised authority in ecclesiastical affairs. The record (within historical times) begins with Anuruddha's vigorous reforms. In later centuries we find the sovereign commanding teachers hither and thither, at his pleasure, and even enforcing the study of this or that branch of sacred learning. Though the development of the hierarchy in Burma to its modern form ^ is not distinctly traced in the Sasanavamsa the nature of the Samgharaja's ofi&ce is very clear. He is no elected Head of the Order, but appointed by the king, whose favourite, and tutor he usually is, and on whose death or deposition ^ Bishop Bigandet, Life or Legend (French edition), pp. 477-480. CONCLUSION. 68 he will, most often, be replaced by the dcariya of the successor. Finally, it appears, from the accounts of controversies such as the great Parupana-Ekamsika dispute, that the sovereign's power to settle a religious question by royal decree is fully recognised by the Saipgha ; while, to keep the balance of mutual depen- dence, we see the king himself usually under his dcariya' s influence, so far as to ensure his favouring the orthodox or unorthodox school, according to the views of the Saiugharaja. The controversies of which we read in the Sasanavamsa have their interest from another point of view. They illustrate not only the influence of the king in the affairs of the Order, but the whole character of the Buddhism of Burma. It was said by Bishop Bigandet, many years ago (and | by many writers since his day), that the Buddhism of Bunna has kept the primitive character lost in other countries (as Nep&l) ; and this is well borne out by the religious annals of Mramma. Here we find, at least, a consistent striving carried on, century after century, to uphold the precepts and to keep before the bhikkhus of later times the earliest ideal. That controversies have raged only too often over the veriest trifles, is the first and irresistible impression that the reading of these records brings with it. But strict- ness in details is, in itself, no departure from the spirit of the ancient and pure Buddhism. The "Discipline" of the Order embodies countless rules on the smaller decen- cies of life, which are ascribed to the watchful wisdom of the Master himself. Here, of course, the individual point of view of the author has to be taken into account, besides his monastic standing. Heresy, for Pannasami, means, before all, a falling away from the ancient Discipline ; the controversies he records as noteworthy turn, for the most part, not on philosophical subtleties but ou daily life, — on the precepts of the Vinaya rather than on the questionings of the Kathavatthu. 64 A BURMESE HISTORIAN OF BUDDHISM. The individual bias is clear, too, in the interesting, if short, notices of the literary history of Burma, contained in the Sasanavamsa. The author's great delight, as a scholar, is in grammar. His anecdotes of theras cele- brated in this branch of learning, or of keen-witted women disputing with monks on Pali accidence, sound a note of real enthusiasm. It is a pious enthusiasm too ; accord- ing to the orthodox, scriptural warrant is everything, in the settlement of religious dilBficulties. From the word of the ancient texts, expanded in the Atthakatha and further explained by tikas and atthayojanas there is no appeal. So the actual " word " becomes the rock on which right-believing and right-living rest, and generation after generation of teachers devotes itself passionately to the study of the Pali grammar. The " science of words " is held to be vital to the cause of Truth, and the writing of grammatical treatises rises to the height of a religious duty. The Sasanavamsa can be fairly judged only by bearing in mind the express and declared purpose with which the book was written. The author's first aim is to trace the Theraparampard, — the spiritual pedigree of orthodox Buddhist teachers from the Master's own disciples down- wards. Like the tie of blood between father and son is the relationship between each teacher and the pupil who is his direct successor. The succession depends on (1) Personal relation with the teacher as his pupil (sissa) and companion (saddhivihdrika) ; (2) valid ordination ; (3) strict orthodoxy — another name for the doctrine professed by the Vibhajyavadins, who already claimed, in A9oka's day, to uphold the true teaching of the Master against encroaching heresies ; (4) holiness of life, or " modesty " (to translate literally the charac- teristic phrase of the Buddhists). The alajjibhikkhu is no more to be reckoned in the Theraparampard than is the adhammavddl. Already, in the opening chapter of the Sasanavamsa, the first two centuries of Buddhism are no sooner passed CONCLUSION. 66 in review than the author turns back to follow the succes- sion of theras from Up&li, the Master's own saddhim- hdrika to Mah&-Moggaliputtatissa, from whom down to the present time the line of orthodox teachers, each inheriting his master's authority, is held to have been uninterrupted. And throughout the book we see an underlying purpose, even in the anecdotes, haphazard and irrelevant as some of them at first appear to be. That purpose is to separate the orthodox from the unorthodox (or even doubtful) theras, and to prove their claim to descent, in unbroken line, from the great teachers of the past. But, in fulfilling this purpose for Buddhist readers, the History of Religion brings the Saipgha before us as no priestly caste nor even a community bound by neces- sarily life-long vows, but a brotherhood in touch with every class in the nation, sharing its activities, its feel- ings, many of its weaknesses. It is not too much to say that the highest interest of the Sasanavaiusa lies rather in its reflection of the spirit than its history of the career of Buddhism in Burma. We value what the writer unconsciously reveals, rather than his dates, which are sometimes doubtful, or events, which are often fantastically wide of the truth. Even the orthodox prejudices woven into the work, and certainly the national traditions and local details with which it is coloured lend it a worth of its own. Its very narrow- ness brings us, by a direct way, the closer to this strange and great religion, so typical in itself of the Indian genius, yet planted in the midst of non-Indian races and secure — with roots deep in a past of many centuries ; secure, in spite of ineradicable folk-super- stitions and even reconciled with them. We see in the religious History of Mramma a striking departure from the Master's conception of the true Samana, the monk-philosopher, with his intense spiritu- ality, his rapt calm, his abandonment of joy and sorrow, his love for aU beings, and his detachment from all. Yet 5 66 A BURMESE HISTORIAN OF BUDDHISM. we find, too, a certain abiding fidelity to the Discipline and an earnest teaching of the Law of Gotama. We see the Order growing and changing to a hierarchy, relaxing its strictness of renunciation, so that its higher members become councillors of State or dignitaries of a Church supported and enriched by royal bounty ; but we must recognise, besides, in all its ranks, a social force, an upholder of humanity and justice against barbaric tyranny, a grave, strenuous influence in the midst of a careless people, teaching the love of learning and com- pelling the obeisance of kings. We see the land loyal to the Conqueror it has never wholly understood, and none the less loyal, though the old gods still people every tree and stream and watch over every village. The chroni- cler's intimate knowledge, with all its limitations, comes to the aid of the more critical historian ; the Burmese monk, busied in his quiet kyaung, lends help that cannot be foregone, if the history \mtten from the outside point of view is to be no less just in its judgments than true as a record of facts. LIST OF PRINCIPAL AUTHORITIES CONSULTED. Bastian (Adolf), Geschichte der Indo-Chintsen. Bergaigne (Abel), L'Ancien Royaume de Campd. Bigandet, Life or Legend of Gaudaina. Bird (Geo.), Wanderings in Burma. British Burma Gazetteer. Bumey, J. R. A. S., Bengal, d-c.