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Homage to the Blessed One, the Worthy One, the Perfectly Self-Enlightened One. Saddanīti (Word-Grammar) Introduction to the Work By the path sought by the wise, taught by the Buddha, understanding the tranquil Dhamma here, the deathless state is known. Having paid homage to that Great Hero, the Omniscient One, leader of the world, the Greatly Compassionate, the Excellent, the Pure, the giver of purity. And having honored his True Dhamma, the pure, the tranquil, the unconditioned, quite beyond thought, well-expounded, sweet, auspicious. And having made anjali to the Saṅgha, the field of merit for such beings, shining with pure qualities like virtue, concentration, and wisdom. By the power of the merit of homage and so forth, done to the Triple Gem, I shall completely remove all obstacles. For the benefit of the Teaching, I shall expound the Saddanīti, without confusion, for the wise in worldly conduct, and for the wise in the Teacher's True Dhamma. The attainment of the Teaching's prosperity comes from the attainment of the destruction of defilements; and the attainment of the destruction of defilements is due to the realization of the Truths. And that realization of the Truths is considered to be based on practice; and that practice, indeed, is devoted to learning. Knowing the characteristics of words, for those devoted to learning, there is no confusion regarding syllables and words. And because, by the absence of confusion regarding syllables and words, the wise understand the meaning of the Pāḷi in the Sugata's Teaching. By understanding the meaning of the Pāḷi, wisely in the Teacher's Teaching, the wise practice diligently in their practice. Having practiced wisely the supreme, supramundane Dhamma, they attain purity through the practice of virtue and so forth. Therefore, those who seek this, relying on the pure method of the wise, should well grasp the Saddanīti being expounded by me. Roots, and forms derived from roots, with their characteristics; and the divisions of words like sandhi and nāma, and their inflections. And the Pāḷi methods and so forth, in various ways here; will be elucidated for the benefit of the Teaching. 1. Division of Verbs with Vikaraṇa Among these, what is a root (dhātu) by what meaning? It is a root because it holds its own meaning (sakatthaṃ dhāreti), and it is a root because it holds the meaning of others due to its connection with an abundance of meaning. That which, connected to a specific meaning-cause by any prefix, holds a specific meaning, is a root; also, it is a root because it is held by scholars in many ways, saying "this is its meaning, this is its suffix, that is its prefix," and so on; also, it is a root because experts produce word-formations with it, just as iron-ore and other elements produce iron and other metals. Thus, the meaning of the word "root" should be understood. The word "root" in the Jina's teaching, is considered feminine. In grammar, it is masculine, in Kaccāyana's teaching, it is both. Or, in the Jina's teaching, in "then the Gotama's relics," the word "root" functions with a gender inversion, like the word "mountain" in "mountains and forests." It should not be said here that "it is neuter because it refers to bones," for even when referring to bones, the feminine "roots" is seen. Words like "bhū" and so on are roots. For example: bhū, i, ku, ke, takka, taka, taki, suka, and so forth. By groups, they are of eight kinds: the bhū-group, the rudh-group, the div-group, the su-group, the kī-group, the gah-group, the tan-group, and the cur-group. Now we will show their suffixes called "vikaraṇa." Indeed, suffixes are of many kinds, as they occur in various types of nouns (nominal nouns, verbal nouns, compound nouns, derivative nouns) and verbs. But in brief, they are only two kinds: nominal suffixes and verbal suffixes. Among these, verbal suffixes are of two kinds: vikaraṇa suffixes and non-vikaraṇa suffixes. Among these, the vikaraṇa suffix is of seventeen kinds, starting with "a," and of fifteen kinds if some are not included. The non-vikaraṇa suffix, however, is of many kinds, such as "kha," "cha," "sa," and so forth. Those words which are helpful for word-formation, whether they illuminate a specific meaning or not, whether they are to be dropped or not to be dropped, those are suffixes. Depending on each cause, they come forth, hence "suffix," or Depending on word-formation, they come from this, hence "suffix." The division of nominal suffixes, will become clear, in the chapter on nouns; therefore, we will not elaborate on it here. As for the division of non-vikaraṇa suffixes It will be explained in detail in the chapter on verbs. Thus, among the various kinds of affixes, these should be recognized as "vikaraṇa affixes." How? From the Bhū-group, the 'a' affix occurs in the active voice. From the Rudhā-group, the 'a', 'i', 'e', 'o' affixes occur in the active voice, and also the 'niggahīta' (ṃ) insertion in the middle. From the Divā-group, the 'ya' affix occurs in the active voice. From the Svā-group, the 'ṇu', 'ṇā', 'uṇā' affixes occur in the active voice. From the Kiyā-group, the 'nā' affix occurs in the active voice. From the Gahā-group, the 'ppa', 'ṇhā' affixes occur in the active voice. From the Tanā-group, the 'o', 'yira' affixes occur in the active voice. From the Curā-group, the 'ṇe', 'ṇaya' affixes occur in the active voice. The 'a' and 'i' vowels, and 'e', 'o' vowels, and 'ya' likewise; 'ṇu', 'ṇā', 'uṇā', and 'nā', 'ppa', 'ṇhā', 'yira', 'ṇe', 'ṇaya' are the affixes. By including those not explicitly mentioned, thus fifteen are declared; These are known as vikaraṇa affixes, one should understand. Among the eight kinds of root-groups, which are very useful in the Suttantas, with these vikaraṇa affixes thus specified and other affixes, this is the Bhū-group. Bhū is for existence; the root 'bhū' means "to exist." Among transitive and intransitive roots, this is an intransitive root, not like the other root 'bhū' which means "to become" in phrases like "dhammabhūto" (become the Dhamma), which is transitive. This root becomes transitive only when combined with prefixes like 'pari', 'abhi', etc., but not when combined with prefixes or particles like 'upa', 'parā', 'pātu', etc. Therefore, its derived forms should be known in two ways: intransitive forms and transitive forms. Explanation of Pure Active Verbs There are: bhavati (exists), ubbhavati (arises), samubbhavati (arises together), pabhavati (originates), parābhavati (is defeated), sambhavati (is born), vibhavati (becomes manifest), bhoti (exists), sambhoti (is born), vibhoti (becomes manifest), pātubhavati (appears), pātubbhavati (appears), pātubhoti (appears). These are intransitive forms. Here, 'pātu' is a particle. Like the particles 'āvi' and 'tiro' in "āvibhavati" (becomes manifest) and "tirobhavati" (disappears), it neither modifies the verb derived from the root 'bhū' nor makes it transitive. 'U' and others are prefixes; they are modifiers, but do not make it transitive. Whose meaning is with an object is not to be connected with an object, those words are intransitive. The meaning of intransitive words should be explained appropriately as intransitive. Paribhoti, paribhavati, abhibhoti, abhibhavati, adhibhoti, adhibhavati, atibhoti, atibhavati, anubhoti, anubhavati, samanubhoti, samanubhavati, abhisambhoti, abhisambhavati, these are transitive words. Here, pari and so on are prefixes, they are modifiers of the verb derived from the root bhū, and also make it transitive. Those words whose meaning is to be connected with an object, those words are transitive. The meaning of transitive words should be explained as transitive, and sometimes also as intransitive. Thus, there are transitive verbs. This is the outline. There, bhavati means to be, to exist, to be known, to obtain a form. Ubbhavati means to arise, to obtain a form. Samubbhavati means to arise together, to obtain a form. Pabhavati means to be, to originate. Or, pabhavati means to flow from somewhere, not to be cut off, to be continuous, to spread to various places. Parābhavati means to be defeated, to fall into misfortune, to reach decline. Sambhavati means to be well, to attain growth, development, abundance. Vibhavati means to be cut off, to perish, to fail, or to be especially, to succeed. Bhoti, sambhoti, vibhoti, these are synonymous with "bhavati, sambhavati, vibhavati" respectively. Pātubhavati means to appear, to be seen, to be known, to become manifest. Pātubbhavati, pātubhoti, these are synonymous with "pātubhavati". Thus, the explanation of transitive words as appropriate, transitive or intransitive, should be seen. And similarly later for other transitive words. In the pairs of paribhoti and so on, in the seven pairs, two words are synonymous in each pair respectively. Therefore, we will take and explain two words at a time. There, paribhoti, paribhavati means to harm others, to oppress. i, or he scorns, he despises. He overcomes, he overpowers, meaning he overwhelms, he crushes another. He dominates, he rules, meaning he subdues another and makes him subject to his will. He surpasses, he excels, meaning he goes beyond another. He experiences, he feels, meaning he feels pleasure and pain, he partakes of pleasure and pain. He fully experiences, he fully feels, meaning he feels pleasure and pain well, he partakes of pleasure and pain well, he is well acquainted with pleasure and pain. He completely overcomes, he completely overpowers, meaning he overwhelms, he crushes another. Thus, the explanation of these verbs should be understood according to their verbal meaning. Sometimes, however, it is also explained according to the meaning of the root, such as "he goes" means "he proceeds." And similarly for other verbs later on. The suffix 'a' becomes 'paro' (another), When it comes from the 'bhū' group of roots, In expressing a simple active verb, Dependent on all roots.