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and perform cruel deeds. Therefore, the Four Great Kings, to prevent harm to each other or to humans, appointed various kings or various generals among them. Here, the Āṭānāṭiya Sutta should be mentioned. For there, four kinds of non-human beings are mentioned: Yakkha, Yakkhinī, Gandhabba, Gandhabbī, Kumbhaṇḍa, Kumbhaṇḍī, Nāga, Nāgī. Among them, a non-human endowed with bodily radiance, splendor, and prosperity is called a Yakkha, or a Deva, or a Devatā. A non-human lacking bodily radiance, splendor, and prosperity, of repulsive form, is called only a Yakkha. One born in a tree-dwelling mansion is called a tree deity. One born inside a tree is called a Gandhabba. Who in the world is called a wood-yakkha. Some female gandhabbas, having performed ignoble deeds in the past, are born even within the bodies of human women. They are called Yoginīs in the Vedas and Joginīs in the world. During specific nights, when engaged in their feeding grounds, they are called Juṇhās because of their radiance. Kumbhaṇḍas are indeed ogres with large bellies and huge eyes. Who in the world are called guardians of treasure. They guard jewels and gems on Vepulla Mountain. Within the Himalayas, they guard the inner mango trees. Thus, guarding treasure places, or forest trees, or divine medicinal trees, or divine fragrant trees, or water lakes, they consume what is not given. Therefore, they are called Rakkhasas. Here, Nāga and Nāgī also refer to the Vasundharā (earth) deity-yakkha species born within mountains or within the earth. Who are called "earth deities" in the section on earthquakes in the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta. Due to their playful activities, sometimes an earthquake occurs. And whose mantra verses, and knowledge of objects, and knowledge of the earth, and the Brahma-jāla Sutta... They are called. And among them, various powerful ones, those who are restrained, those who are exceedingly evil, those who commit wicked deeds, those who are addicted to play, or addicted to food, in the realms of ghosts and hells, in their natural form, or in the form of dogs, vultures, crows, etc., tormenting beings, they wander about. And all that, in the suttas, or in the jātaka stories, or in the vedic texts, should be understood by the skillful ones. Thirty-three people, who performed meritorious deeds together, were reborn here, with the chief man named Māgha; thus, "Tettiṃsā" (thirty-three). That same is "Tāvatiṃsā" by way of etymology. Although here, even in all the world-systems, this second deva-world, as stated in the Janavasatha Sutta, is the abode of the thirty-three deva kings such as Sakka, Pajāpati, Varuṇa, Īsāna, etc. A thousand Cātumahārājika devas, a thousand Tāvatiṃsa devas, is indeed stated in the Aṅguttara Nikāya. But the Māgha men were reborn in those deva-king positions that had come into being. And they are currently existing, therefore, it should be understood that this meaning of the word is made with reference to them. Others, however, say, just as in the Vidhurajātakā, "They appear as if with the color of Indagopaka insects, thirty of them," in this, the word "tāva" is merely an accompaniment to the word "tiṃsa" (thirty). Similarly, here too, considering this, it would be appropriate to say that Tāvatiṃsa is the dwelling place of thirty deva-king families who are in the position of Sakka. But in the commentaries, having adopted the aforementioned etymological method, and in the Māgha stories and in those various places, they also say that the number thirty-three for Sakka is indeed stated. That is not appropriate. Because in the Pāḷi itself, it is stated, "Brahmāsanaṅkumāra created thirty-three bodies and sat on the thrones of the Tāvatiṃsa devas." "Yāma" is the name of the ruling deva family in that deva world. And similarly "Suyāma." But because of their association, that deva world and the devas born there are also called "Yāma." Because they are endowed with abundant glory and prosperity, they are always content, they are exceedingly joyful and happy-faced here; thus, "Tusitā." They create and create enjoyments as they wish and delight themselves. There they delight in creations. Knowing their own desire, they make others' creations subject to their will, thus they are "those who make others' creations subject to their will." They grow, they increase, they attain growth, development, and fullness through very excellent qualities like jhānas, thus they are "Brahmās." Great Brahmās are Mahābrahmās; the word "mahā" (great) is dropped. Existing in an assembly are "assembly members." Or, born in assemblies are "assembly members." The meaning is "attendants." Attendants of Mahābrahmās are "Brahma assembly members." They place themselves, they stand, in a high position in front, thus they are "purohitas" (chaplains). Purohitas of Mahābrahmās are "Brahma purohitas." Great Brahmās are Mahābrahmās. A thousand Brahmās, two thousand Brahmās, three thousand Brahmās, and so on, as mentioned in the Saṅkhārupapatti Sutta, means "overlord Brahmās." There, a thousand Brahmās means a Brahmā who is lord of a thousand world-systems. Two thousand means a lord of two thousand world-systems. All three of these dwell on the same plane. There, in the world, great multitudes worship various family deities, it is said. Some worship Mahādeva, it is said. Some Vāsudeva, it is said. Some Mahesara, it is said. Some Paramesvara, it is said. House deities, village deities, tree deities, and so on, also become attendants of these great god-kings. There, the Mahābrahmās should be seen like the great god-kings. The Brahma purohitas should be seen like the house deities and so on. The Brahma assembly members should be seen like humans. And there, the house deities and so on worship the great god-kings without seeing them. And humans worship both of them without seeing them. In the same way, the Brahma purohitas do not see the Mahābrahmās. They do not even know the dwelling place of the Mahābrahmās. The Brahma assembly members do not see either of them. They do not even know the dwelling place of both. But when they create a gross form and show themselves, then they see them. This method applies to the upper planes as well. However, what is said in the commentary to the Brahmanimantana Sutta, that the natural form of Brahmās does not come into the sight of anyone, (It) shines. This is said because the natural form of the higher Brahmas, such as the Brahma-ministers, does not come into the range of vision of any Brahma-retinue, or devas, or humans. But the natural form of the lower ones will certainly come into the range of vision of the higher ones. For this reason, in the commentary on the Janavasabha Sutta, it is said that the lower and lower devas are able to see only the gross form created by the higher devas. There, in the second plane, "Parittābha" are the Brahma-retinue. "Appamāṇābha" are the Brahma-ministers. "Ābhassara" are the Great Brahmas. This means that in that plane, these are the ruling Brahmas. But it should be understood that the naming is done by way of their radiance to distinguish them from the lower plane. There, "limited radiance" belongs to these, thus "Parittābha". "Immeasurable radiance" belongs to these, thus "Appamāṇābha". "They shine forth, they emit (radiance) from these," thus "Ābhassara". In the third plane, "Parittasubha" are the Brahma-retinue. "Appamāṇasubha" are the Brahma-ministers. "Subhakiṇṇa" are the Great Brahmas. This means that in that plane, these are the ruling Brahmas. There, "subha" (lustre) refers to a dense, unmoving, stable radiance. "Limited lustre" belongs to these, thus "Parittasubha". "Immeasurable lustre" belongs to these, thus "Appamāṇasubha". "Pervaded by lustre," thus "Subhākiṇṇa". Some also read "Subhakiṇha". The shortening of the 'ā' and the 'ha' for the final 'ṇa' should be noted. But in these two planes, the natural bodily radiance is excessive. Therefore, names like "Parittābha" and so on are established based on that (radiance). Not based on "Brahma-retinue" and so on. And so, in the Verañja Sutta, the inhabitants of the first plane are called "Brahmakāyika devas". The inhabitants of the second plane are called "Ābhā devas". The inhabitants of the third plane are called "Subhā devas". In the fourth plane, "Vehapphala" are those for whom the fruit is abundant. Or, the meritorious fruit, which is shaken by the cessation of life-span and world-cycle, along with the earth-plane, due to obstacles like the cycle of radiance of the three lower planes, which arise from joyful jhānas of the 'stirring' kind... is. For it is said that the gods of beautiful appearance have sixty-four eons. That is said in reference to the primordial beings on that plane. For the later ones, the result of merit, which is wavering and receding, is sixty-three eons, sixty-two eons, sixty-one eons, and so on. But for those born of the imperturbable jhana, with the jhana of equanimity, there is no such wavering result of merit due to any obstacle. Therefore, the result of merit, which is especially desired and increased in accordance with the power of jhana, is present here, hence Vehapphala. There are no four formless aggregates grasped by the door of perception for these, hence Asañña. And they are beings without perception, hence Asaññasattā. But since there are no mental factors, the possibility of their not being beings arises, so the term "beings" is used, it should be understood. These two also dwell on the same plane. Here too, due to the presence of the distinction of the low, middle, and excellent nature of the generative jhana, the distinction of Brahmās as attendants, chief priests, and Great Brahmās certainly arises accordingly. However, due to the difference in lifespan and the absence of mutual non-seeing, etc., there is no division of planes in terms of attendants, etc., it should be understood. Thus also in the Avihās and so on.