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and from comparison in seven ways, death should be recollected: from greatness of fame, from greatness of merit, from greatness of strength, from greatness of psychic power, from greatness of wisdom, from Paccekabuddhas, and from Sammāsambuddhas. Therein, "This thing called death falls even upon those of great fame, great retinue, and great esteem, like Mandhātā and others; how much more will it not fall upon me?" Thus, from greatness of fame. Jotika, Jaṭila, Ugga, Meṇḍaka, and then Puṇṇaka; These and others who in the world are renowned as greatly meritorious; All met with death, what then of those like me? Thus, from greatness of merit. Vāsudeva, Baladeva, Bhīmasena and other great strong ones met the power of death, what then of those like me? Thus, from greatness of strength. "It falls even upon those of great psychic power, like Mahāmoggallāna and others; what then of those like me?" Thus, from greatness of psychic power. "It falls even upon those of great wisdom, like Sāriputta and others; what then of those like me?" Thus, from greatness of wisdom. Similarly, contemplating the greatness of others, even Paccekabuddhas and Sammāsambuddhas, "Death falls even upon them; how much more will it not fall upon me?" Thus, from comparison. "This body is common to many, internal and external..." due to the body being common to hundreds of diseases, external ones like snakes and scorpions, and due to the weakness of life, in the manner of "life is bound by in-breaths and out-breaths," and so on. Life, sickness, and time, the laying down of the body, and destiny; these five in the world of living beings are not known, are not perceived. Thus, due to the absence of a fixed determination of time, and because it is said, "Monks, whoever lives long, lives a hundred years, or a little more," in this way, the practice of defining the lifespan is called mindfulness of death. Mindfulness of death should be cultivated due to its momentary brevity. Life and existence, and all happiness and suffering, are conjoined with a single mind, that moment passes quickly. Thus it is said. The determination of the Four Protections. The description of the exposition of the Four Protections is finished. 50. The description of the exposition of Insight 471-2. Here, regarding "comprehending name-and-form," one who wishes to comprehend name-and-form, first, setting aside the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception, having attained any other jhāna, and having emerged, should define the jhāna factors like initial application, and the associated phenomena like contact, by way of characteristic, function, manifestation, and proximate cause, and determine that "all this is 'name' in the sense of bending towards the object." Then, seeking its cause, one sees that it "occurs dependent on the heart-base." Again, seeing the heart-base and the derived material forms as its causes, one comprehends that "all this is 'form' in the sense of being afflicted, undergoing change." Again, one briefly defines both as "name has the characteristic of bending, form has the characteristic of being afflicted." All this is said according to the way of tranquility. However, one who proceeds by insight, having defined the primary and derived material forms through the analysis of the four elements, [concludes] "all this is 'form' in the sense of being afflicted." he sees. Then, dependent on such a delimited form, the formless phenomena that arise through the eye and so on also come into view. Then, gathering all those formless phenomena by the characteristic of bending, he sees them as "this is name." He distinguishes them in two ways: "this is name, this is form." Having thus distinguished, he sees that "beyond name and form, there is no other being, or person, or individual, or god, or Brahmā." Just as with an assemblage of parts, the word 'chariot' arises; So too, when the aggregates exist, the convention 'being' arises. (Saṃ. Ni. 1.171) In the same way, when the five aggregates of clinging exist, the term 'being' or 'person' is merely a convention. Thus, by this method, he comprehends name and form with the knowledge that is the purification of view, which is the true seeing of name and form. Then he comprehends the conditions for that name and form. Having comprehended name and form in the manner described, he searches, "what indeed is its cause?" Seeing the fault in the doctrines of no cause and wrong cause, seeing the disease, and searching for its origin, like a physician searching for the cause and condition of a disease, he searches for its cause and condition. He sees these four phenomena— ignorance, craving, clinging, and kamma— as "causes" because they are the conditions for the arising of name and form, and as "conditions" because nutriment is the condition for sustenance. "Ignorance and the other two phenomena are like a mother to a child, being its support; kamma is like a father, generating the child; nutriment is like a nurse, sustaining the child." Having thus comprehended the conditions for the physical body, he then comprehends the causes and conditions for the mental body as well, in the manner of "dependent on the eye and forms, eye-consciousness arises" (Saṃ. Ni. 2.43). Thus comprehending, he concludes that "past and future phenomena also arise in the same way." Regarding the past, he thinks, "was I in the past, or was I not, what then..." "How was I? What was I? What was I, having been what, in the past?" Thus, five kinds of doubt are stated. And regarding the future, "Shall I be in the future? Shall I not be? What shall I be? How shall I be? What shall I be, having been what, in the future?" Thus, five kinds are stated. And regarding the present, "Am I within myself? Am I not? What am I? How am I? Whence came this being? Whither will it go?" Thus, six kinds of doubt are stated. All these are abandoned. Thus, the knowledge that stands, having overcome doubt in the three times by grasping conditions, is called "Purification by Overcoming Doubt," also "Knowledge of the Stability of Phenomena," and "Right Vision." Here, there are three worldly comprehensions: Comprehension by Knowing, Comprehension by Examining, Comprehension by Abandoning. Therein, "Form has the characteristic of being afflicted, Feeling has the characteristic of feeling," Thus, the wisdom that proceeds by discerning the individual characteristics of those various phenomena is called Comprehension by Knowing. "Form is impermanent, Feeling is impermanent," Thus, applying the general characteristics to those very phenomena, the insight-wisdom focused on characteristics is called Comprehension by Examining. And in those very phenomena, the insight-wisdom focused on characteristics that proceeds by abandoning the perception of permanence and so on is called Comprehension by Abandoning. Therein, from the grasping of formations up to the grasping of conditions is the ground for Comprehension by Knowing. From the comprehension of groups up to the contemplation of rise and fall is the ground for Comprehension by Examining. From the contemplation of dissolution onwards is the ground for Comprehension by Abandoning. For from that point, "Contemplating as impermanent, one abandons the perception of permanence; contemplating as suffering, one abandons the perception of happiness; contemplating as non-self, one abandons the perception of self; being disenchanted, one abandons delight; being dispassionate, one abandons lust; cessating, one abandons origination; relinquishing, one abandons grasping." Thus abandoning, there is mastery over the seven contemplations which achieve the abandonment of the perception of permanence and so on. Thus, in these understandings, because the analysis of formations and the comprehension of causes have been achieved, by this yogi, the understanding of what is known has been attained. Again, "Whatever form, past, future, or present, internal or external, gross or subtle, inferior or superior, far or near, all form, because it comes into being and then ceases to be, is impermanent, because it is oppressed by arising and passing away, is suffering, because it is not subject to control, is non-self. Whatever feeling, whatever perception, whatever formations, whatever consciousness, past, future, or present, internal or external, gross or subtle, inferior or superior, far or near, all consciousness, because it comes into being and then ceases to be, is impermanent, because it is oppressed by arising and passing away, is suffering, because it is not subject to control, is non-self." In this way, he performs the contemplation of aggregates. Referring to this, it is said, "Contemplating formations by applying the three characteristics." Having thus contemplated the aggregates in terms of impermanence, suffering, and non-self, again he sees only the arising and passing away of formations. How? "From the arising of ignorance, there is the arising of form; from the arising of craving, kamma, and nutriment, there is the arising of form." In this way, by seeing the arising of the cause of the form aggregate, he sees the arising of the form aggregate. Even by seeing the characteristic of production, he sees the arising of the form aggregate. In this way, he sees the arising of the form aggregate in five ways. "From the cessation of ignorance, there is the cessation of form; from the cessation of craving, kamma, and nutriment, there is the cessation of form." In this way, by seeing the cessation of the cause of the form aggregate, he sees the passing away of the form aggregate. Even by seeing the characteristic of change, he sees the passing away of the form aggregate. In this way, he sees the passing away in five ways. Similarly, "From the arising of ignorance, there is the arising of feeling; from the arising of craving, kamma, and contact, there is the arising of feeling."